The grammatical rules of a language help stabilize the language and improve its ability to communicate across the barriers of time and distance. In general, communication in business, and especially written communication in business, employs what has come to be known as Standard English. 

In business and in most professions in the United States, language is considered correct when it follows the rules of Standard English for spelling, grammar, and mechanics (punctuation) and uses words according to their dictionary definitions. Although it is widely acknowledged that the accepted meanings of words change over time and that rules of usage may change as well, differences from the current standard are usually noticed—and noticed unfavorably.

For this reason, you will do well to know the fundamentals of Standard English. Having the fundamentals under control will also allow you to communicate quickly and easily with the confidence that comes from knowing that your audience is unlikely to find errors in your writing and speech.

The fundamentals of Standard English include such aspects of usage as the meaning and use of words, the functions and types of sentences, and the relationships between sentences.

Definitions of Words

Although the meanings of words can and do change over time, most readers and listeners will expect you to use words the way they are defined in a dictionary. Failure to do so is typically called an error in diction, whereas using an inappropriate word for a given context (calling something cheap when inexpensive would be more appropriate) is typically called word choice.

Faulty Diction:

• Finding a $50 bill in the street was really fortuitous. [Instead of fortunate or lucky.]

• The automobile was still young when it received its first scratch. [Instead of new.]

• The fruit basket is for your amusement. [Instead of enjoyment.]

• Please edit the letter to improve its errors. [Instead of correct.]

Faulty Word Choice:

• He was convicted of drunk driving. [Instead of drunken or driving while drunk.]

• Did you get my letter? [Instead of receive.]

• I feel that we should install a new computer system. [Instead of think.]

• Please pick the one you like best. [Instead of select.]

Note, for example, that feel, believe, and think do not mean the same thing and that they should not be used interchangeably. Feel refers to an emotion only; believe refers to an acceptance based on faith (emotion) supported by an element of reason, and think refers to a conclusion based on evidence. The word you elect to use in a sentence serves as a signal to your audience for the quality of the information you are providing, with the highest quality being based on the logical consideration implied by the word think:

• I feel that we should invest in new laptop computers.
• I believe that we should invest in new laptop computers.
• I think that we should invest in new laptop computers.

Parts of Speech

Words are used in sentences according to grammatical function. While some words can perform more than one function, most cannot. The possible uses of a word are governed by its part of speech. Nouns and pronouns, for example, function as subjects, objects, and complements in sentences, while verbs serve as predicates. Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns, and adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

Conjunctions join elements, and prepositions indicate relationships.

Sentence Classifications

Sentences may be classified according to function or structure.

Function:  A sentence may have one of the following functions or purposes:  Declarative sentences make statements. Interrogative sentences ask questions. Imperative sentences give commands, and exclamatory sentences express strong emotion. 

Structure:  Sentences may also be classified according to structure. Simple sentences contain only one independent clause, with one subject (which may be a compound subject) and one predicate (verb), which may be a compound predicate. Compound sentences contain more than one independent clause joined by a conjunction or a semicolon. 

Complex sentences contain one independent clause and one dependent or subordinate clause (a clause that cannot stand alone as a sentence). Compound complex sentences consist of at least two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.

Sentence Structure. Because sentences are the basic unit of verbal communication (both oral and written), a good understanding of sentence structure is essential. To be a sentence, for example, a group of words needs at least one subject and verb and must express a complete thought. 

Where words and word groups (phrases and clauses) are placed in a sentence, how they are used, and their relationship to each other (as indicated by placement; punctuation; and such relationship words as conjunctions, prepositions, and subordinating adverbs and conjunctive adverbs) may influence the meaning of the sentence.

Phrases (a word group without its own subject and predicate) and clauses (a word group containing its own subject and predicate) in sentences may be either restrictive (essential) or nonrestrictive (unessential) in a sentence. Restrictive clauses define or limit the term being modified:

• Restrictive phrase: The car with the flat tire is in the garage. [Defines which car out of several is in the garage.]

• Nonrestrictive phrase: The car, now with a flat tire, is in the garage. [Refers to a specific car which now happens to have a flat tire.]

• Restrictive clause: My secretary who smokes too much does sloppy work. [The person has more than one secretary and the one who smokes too much does sloppy work.]

• Nonrestrictive clause: My secretary, who smokes too much, does sloppy work. [The person has one secretary who smokes and does sloppy work.]

Transition and Coherence. The full expression of an idea typically requires more than one sentence, and the logic with which sentences are connected is typically considered a fundamental skill. Transition refers to the way in which sentences and ideas are connected to each other, and coherence refers to the way groups of sentences focus on a topic.

To ensure good transition and coherence, group related ideas and then arrange them in a logical order, making sure that the relationship of each sentence to the previous one is clear and logical. Remember that a relationship that is clear and logical in your own mind may not be clear and logical to a reader or listener who does not have your knowledge of the subject.

Parallel Construction. Ideas are parallel when they are expressed in the same grammatical form. Lists of words or phrases, for example, should all be expressed in the same part of speech or grammatical form:

Not this:  I’m going to tell you three things: First, use parallel construction; second, use parallel construction; and (c) be parallel.

Say this:  I’m going to tell you three things: First, use parallel construction; second, use parallel construction; and third, use parallel construction.

Paragraphs

A paragraph is a group of sentences arranged in logical order and focused on a specific topic. In general, a paragraph begins with a topic sentence that makes a statement about the subject or topic of the paragraph. The topic sentence is followed by support sentences that describe or explain the topic sentence.

In business writing, paragraphs are usually shorter than they are in academic or scientific writing because short paragraphs are easier to read. As a general rule, in single-spaced documents (such as letters, memos, and email), first and last paragraphs should be kept to no more than about 4 or 5 lines of text (lines, not sentences), and middle paragraphs should be kept to no more than about 10 lines. Information that is “buried” in the middle of a long paragraph may be overlooked.

In most business documents, the first and last paragraphs contain the most important information and should be easy to read. The paragraphs in the middle usually contain information of less importance.

Nevertheless, knowing the fundamentals will not only give you confidence in your ability to express yourself without having to worry about the correctness of what you are saying, but also provide you with more choices in your use of language. A number of what have been called advanced language patterns are based on deliberate violations of the rules of standard English. If you do not know those rules to begin with, you can’t choose to break them deliberately to achieve a specific communication objective.

In addition to using Standard English, you can improve your written communication by being clear and easy to read. Further, your reader will appreciate it if you save his or her time by being as concise as possible.

Although communication is always less than perfect, your reader will appreciate it if you use common, well-known words when possible and use them according to their dictionary definitions. When you don’t know for sure what a word means, look it up before using it. Be especially careful when using words often confused, such as affect and effect, complement and compliment, or principal and principle.

In general, short, familiar words are more readily understood than long, seldom-used words (improve as compared to ameliorate). Also, avoid technical terms and professional jargon unless you know for sure that your readers will be familiar with the terminology.

Conciseness and brevity are not the same. Good written communication is both concise and complete, and while shorter is often better, some messages need to be long if they are to be fully understood. Conciseness is best achieved by eliminating redundancies and deadwood—unnecessary words, expressions, and sentences.

The Metamodel:

The Metamodel is based on the work of Alfred Korzybski(Science and Sanity: An Introduction to Non-Aristotelian Systems and General Semantics, 1933). Korzybski thought that we could eliminate many problems by making our verbal representations of reality more accurate by recognizing when information being presented is incomplete, distorted, or inappropriately generalized. Korzybski thought that we would understand each other better (and behave more sanely) if we were clear about who, what, when, and where.

As codified by Richard Bandler and John Grinder (see The Structure of Magic, Vols. I and II), the Metamodel focuses on the most common deletions, distortions, and inappropriate generalizations and provides questions that will help recover or correct such problems.

Deletions, distortions, and unwarranted generalizations are known as violations of the Metamodel. While it is impossible for either perception or communication to be absolutely free from deletions, distortions, and generalizations, communication is often (but not always) facilitated when they are minimized. The following are the most common violations:

• Unspecified nouns:  Unspecified nouns are often nominalizations, abstract nouns without external referents, such as freedom, justice, love, trust, help, productivity, efficiency, and quality. The classic test for a nominalization is can you put it in a wheelbarrow. If it is a noun and you cannot put it in a wheelbarrow, it’s a nominalization.

  Be aware of unspecified nouns. When an unspecified noun may cause problems in the communication process, ask a question that will help recover deleted information:

  We need to improve our departmental efficiency.	What do you mean by "efficiency"? How will we measure efficiency?
  I could use a little help.	What kind of help do you need? How specifically can I help you?
  We are all concerned about quality.	What do you mean by "quality"? How do you know we all want that?
  Computers are bad for society.	All computers? How exactly are they bad for society? Are they bad for all societies?
  People are our most important resource.	All people? Which people specifically?
  Your productivity is problematic.	How are you measuring my productivity? What exactly do you mean by "productivity"? How is my productivity a problem?

• Unspecified or missing pronouns:  In most cases, to understand what another person means, we need to know who is performing the action stated or implied by another’s sentences. Some unspecified pronouns, such as everyone and no one constitute unwarranted generalizations. Others, such as some, one, this, it, these, those, and you when it is used to refer to people in general rather than the listener or reader may indicate uncertainty about the referential index, the antecedent or reference for the pronoun (the noun to which the pronoun refers).

  This is going to be a problem	What specifically is going to be a problem?
  Someone will have to finish the report.	Who specifically will finish the report?
  We’ll have to do something about this.	What exactly will we have to do about it? What exactly do we need to do something about?
  No one understands me.	No one? Who specifically doesn’t understand you? How do you know?
  It’s wrong to try to persuade people.	Wrong for whom? How exactly is it wrong? How do you know that it’s wrong?

• Unspecified verbs:  Some verbs are more specific than others based on the kind of action they denote. Telephone, for example, is more specific than contact, because it specifies how the contact is to be made. Verbs that provide a number of behavioral possibilities include such words as change, finish, fix, know, learn, remember, solve, and understand. In many contexts, the number of behavioral possibilities may result in confusion and inappropriate action.

  You need to finish this report.	What exactly still needs to be done? How exactly should I finish it?
  You are confusing me.	How exactly am I confusing you? What specifically do you find confusing?
  Let’s just enjoy ourselves.	How do you think we should enjoy ourselves? What would you like to do?
  Please contact me.	How exactly should I contact you? What do you mean by “contact”? Would you prefer me to call or send email?
  Please take care of the problem.	How exactly should I take care of it? What would you like me to do?

• Unwarranted generalizations (universal quantifiers):  Most broad generalizations are false, and using them may preclude exceptions and alternatives. Such words as all, always, every, everyone, only, never, and no one indicate such generalizations. Universal quantifiers may be implied rather than actually included in the sentence: Men are pigs, implies that all men are pigs. They don’t promote women at XYZ, implies that no one at XYZ promotes women or that women at XYZ are never promoted.

  You always criticize me.	Always? I never do anything else?
  You never want to do anything.	Never? Anything? What do you mean?
  Politicians are crooks.	All politicians? How do you know?
  Everyone is mean to me.	Everyone? Are other people always mean to you? What do you mean?
  You’re only concerned about yourself.	What do you mean? How do you know? Why do you say that?

• Unwarranted comparisons:  Because no two things are identical, all comparisons are false to some degree. A comparison is unwarranted when the objects being compared are significantly different or when the compared reference is missing. Such words as better, best, less, more, worse, and worst are commonly used in unwarranted comparison, but any word indicating comparison (taller, shorter, smarter, easier, faster, etc.) may be used in an unwarranted way.

  Sally would do this job better.	Better than whom? How do you know?
  Brand X gives you more.	More what? More than what? How do you know?
  George is the best.	The best what? The best at what? How do you know?
  Advanced language patterns are easier.	Easier than what? Easier for whom? How do you know?
  John is as thick as a brick.	What do you mean? How do you know?

• Unwarranted rules (modal operators of necessity):  For one reason or another, most people internalize rules about the way the world works that may or may not be true. Such words as can’t, have to, must, need to, should, and shouldn’t signal an individual’s rules at work. If...then statements, such as If I study, (then) I will earn good grades, also indicate a rule. Whether the rule is unwarranted depends on the circumstances, and the only way to find out whether the rule applies is to challenge it.

  We must finish the report before leaving.	What would happen if we didn’t? How do you know?
  We should go now.	Why should we? What would happen if we didn’t?
  We can’t do that here.	How do you know? What would happen if we did?
  We need to exercise more.	How do you know? What would happen if we didn’t?
  I’ve worked hard, so I deserve the promotion.	Does hard work guarantee a promotion? Has anyone worked hard before and not earned a promotion?

Because perception is less than complete and language is also less than complete, most sentences you will hear on any given day will contain violations of the metamodel. It isn’t always useful to request others to supply more information. If someone says, "We need to go have lunch now," you will probably be better off spending your time going to lunch than asking what would happen if you didn’t, how exactly you were going to go, or what specifically was meant by "lunch."

Nevertheless, you should be alert to violations of the metamodel because they reveal limitations in one’s model (mental map) of the world. When understanding the limitation is important to your objective—or when it would be beneficial for the other person—it’s worth asking a question to help fill in the details or correct a misconception.

The Milton Model

The Milton Model is based on the work of Milton H. Erickson, M.D., a psychotherapist of remarkable skill. In some ways, the Milton Model is the reverse of the Metamodel in that Richard Bandler and John Grinder noticed that Erickson achieved his results in part by deliberately omitting or distorting information so that those who listened to him would provide the appropriate details from their own subjective experience.

Bandler and Grinder developed the model so that others could employ Erickson’s techniques in their communication with others. (See Bandler and Grinder, Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson, M.D., Vol. 1 and Grinder, DeLozier, and Bandler, Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson, M.D., Vol. 2.)

Erickson discovered that by being "artfully vague," he could make statements that sounded specific but required the listener to provide the missing details. Such language is useful for hypnosis and all persuasive communication. If you observe advertising messages carefully, for example, you will find many of the kinds of deletions described by the Milton Model. Many of these are essentially the deliberate violations of the metamodel for persuasive purpose.

• Unspecified nouns:  Because of the knowledge and experience you already have, you may begin to notice a degree of curiosity about how you can use the Milton model to be more persuasive.

• Unspecified pronouns:  When you think about it now, you may recall someone from your past who was especially helpful at a time you really needed it.

• Unspecified verbs:  You may begin to wonder whether you will understand the Milton model well enough to use it when you want to be persuasive. I think you’ll find that you will remember it when you need it.

• Generalizations:  You can always practice the Milton model on everyone with whom you speak.

• Comparisons:  You’ll feel better in knowing that the more you use the Milton model, the easier it will become.

• Shifts in referential index:  Speaking for myself only, I have found that when you use the Milton model effectively, your friends start finding everything you say more persuasive.

In addition to these reversals of the metamodel, Erickson also used presuppositions, embedded questions, embedded and negative commands, metaphors, and a variety of ambiguities.

• Presuppositions:  A presupposition is something assumed to be true. All sentences contain or imply presuppositions. In the two preceding sentences, for example, I have presupposed that you are a speaker of English and that you have certain words in your vocabulary. Because what is presupposed in a sentence is less subject to question than other elements may be, the careful use of presuppositions may facilitate persuasion. Compare what is being presupposed in the following sentences:
  • You wouldn’t want to go out with me, would you?
  • If you go out with me, we could go to dinner and a movie if you want.
  • Would you like to go out with me? We could go to dinner and see a movie.
  • When you go out with me, we’ll go to dinner and see a movie.
  • Before you go out with me, think about where you’d like to have dinner and which movie you’d like to see.
  • Let’s have dinner at Chuck’s Steak House and go see Godzilla.
  
  

  Which of the sentences do you think would be most persuasive? Which presuppose a negative outcome? Which would be too presumptuous (presupposing too much) for most relationships? For more information on using presuppositions in business communication, see Language and Meaning.

• Embedded questions:  People may resent or resist certain questions. If the question is embedded in a larger statement, however, people typically find the question less threatening and are more willing to answer it.
  Not this:  How much money do you make?
  Say this:  I’m wondering about how much money you earn.
  
  

  A person can still refuse to supply the information, but the embedded question seems less threatening than the direct question does. This can be useful for softening the effect of metamodel questions:

  • I’m wondering exactly how we should finish the report.
  • I’m curious to know how you know that.
  • I’d be interested in knowing more about what you mean by that.
  • I’d like to know whether you really mean all men.
  
  

• Embedded commands:  Any directive contained within a larger sentence is an embedded command. In oral communication, embedded commands are often set off with a special tone of voice or some other form of analog marking, such as a change in pitch, an increase in volume, or a pause before the command.
  • You can feel better in knowing that you will be able to use these techniques in your conversations.
  • When you want to know more, just ask.
  • Advanced language patterns allow you to have fun while you learn more about how language works.
  
  

• Negative commands:  Negative commands are a special class of embedded command. Because negativity exists in language but not in nature, sentences containing negatives are more difficult to understand. In general, the positive idea must be processed first. The negative is added afterwards, and sometimes not at all. This is the principal reason that denials are seldom effective (recall Richard Nixon’s, “I am not a crook”).
  • Don’t think of elephants.
  • Don’t look now.
  • Don’t forget to pick me up at 7:00.
  • Don’t worry about it.
  • Don’t give this a second thought.
  
  

• Tag questions:  Short questions following a statement are called "tag questions" because they are tagged on to the statement. Tag questions are often seen as undermining the strength of the initial statement. When the tag question is inflected as a question (with the voice tone rising), they do call the original statement into question:
  • The weather is beautiful today, isn't it? [With voice tone rising.]
  • That was a good movie, wasn't it? [With voice tone rising.]
  • That was a problem, wasn't it? [With voice tone rising.]
  
  

  When inflected as a question, the speaker seems to be asking the listener to agree or disagree with the statement. When a tag question is inflected as a statement (with the voice tone dropping), however, the tag question functions to provide an additional sense of completion for the statement and to pace a listener's tendency to mismatch.

  • The weather is beautiful today, isn't it. [With voice tone dropping.]
  • That was a good movie, wasn't it. [With voice tone dropping.]
  • That was a problem, wasn't it. [With voice tone dropping.]
  
  

  Tag questions can be used to influence a listener's response. When you want the listener to think about and respond to-either by confirming or denying the content of the statement, add a tag question with the voice inflection rising: You were glad to have known her, weren't you? The listener will be inclined to respond with a yes or no and an explanation or list of reasons.

  When you want the listener to accept and recognize the truth of the statement without inviting further reflection or a denial, add a tag question with the voice inflection dropping: You were glad to have known her, weren't you. The listener will be more inclined to accept the truth of the statement without additional reflection or commentary.

• Conversational postulates:  A conversational postulate is a question asking for yes or no as a response but which often presupposes and produces a behavioral response. The most common conversational postulate is Do you have the time? A literal response to the question would be either yes or no, but when asked this question, most people will look at their watches and tell the person who asked the time. If someone asks, Does anyone have a pencil? people typically respond by checking to see whether they have a pencil the person can borrow.

  Conversational postulates can be used in hypnosis and a wide variety of persuasive situations. Think of the behavior you would like to produce, and ask a yes/no question that presupposes the desired behavior.

  • Will you allow yourself to relax more fully?
  • Will you tell me a bit about your problem?
  • Can you clarify what the contract says?
  • Can you sign the contract now?
  • Is the contract complete and ready to be signed?
  
  

• Metaphors:  As an advanced language pattern, a metaphor is any story that helps illustrate a point or motivate someone. Because language is a symbolic representation of reality, it is inherently metaphorical, and the human brain seems to have a special affinity for metaphors. For this reason, metaphors can be a very useful persuasive device.

  Metaphors can be either deep (the kind you find in literature) or shallow, (typically of more use in business). In a deep metaphor, plants and animals may talk and have special messages for the listener, or the story may take place “once upon a time” when kings and queens ruled the kingdom and princes and princesses got into and out of difficulties.

  In a shallow metaphor, the story will be similar to the situation being discussed.

  • Last semester I had a student who thought that he could learn everything at the last minute.... [If you are a student this semester, and especially if you have a tendency to procrastinate, you may want to know what happened to him.]

  • Over the years, I have watched hundreds of nervous students give speeches, but none was ever worse than a young woman named Sally.... [If you suffer from anxiety about public speaking, you may want to know about Sally’s problem and how she solved it.]

  • One of the reasons I like the advanced language patterns is that they allow me to understand others better and to be more persuasive when I need to be. I have found that there’s a high degree of positive correlation between my personal success and my use of the advanced language patterns. [If you, like me, are interested in success, you may want to know more about how the advanced language patterns have helped me be more successful.]
  
  

• Quotes:  Using “quotes” is a special application of metaphor. In most cases, if you attribute your statement to someone else, you can say anything you want without having to accept responsibility for it. In using quotes, you establish some distance between you and the statement or story you wish to convey to your listener:
  • One of the other business communication instructors told me that she had a student who said that he intended to conduct all his business on the telephone and therefore wouldn’t need to learn to write effective letters. She told him that it was actually easier to write effective letters than it was to communicate effectively by telephone....

  • I was talking to George in Marketing the other day, and he told me that someone in your department said that you were really being a jerk about overtime....

  • One of my uncles was a very successful car salesman. He was also a champion billiards player, and one of his favorite sayings was that “Power is no substitute for finesse.” He said that it didn’t matter whether you were shooting pool or selling cars, that finesse always scored more points—and earned more money—than power.
  
  

• Ambiguities:  A word, phrase, or clause is said to be ambiguous when it has more than one possible meaning. English is rich with ambiguities, which are often used for humorous intent. Puns, for example, are one application of phonological ambiguities, words that sound alike but have different meanings. In addition to their use in humor, phonological ambiguities can have serious purpose. In nonhumorous situations, the conscious mind will typically process just the surface meaning only, but the unconscious mind will process both:
  • Come by (buy) today for a test drive. We’re open until 6:00.
  • You may want to think about these no (know) more.
  
  

  Syntactic ambiguity occurs when the meaning of a phrase is unclear because a word may be functioning as either a verb or an adjective:

  • They were riding horses. [Were they riding the horses, or were the horses riding horses as opposed to race horses or plow horses?]

  • Teaching professors can be difficult. [Is it difficult to teach professors, or are those professors who teach difficult people?]
  
  

  Scope ambiguity occurs when a word or phrase can apply to more than one part of a sentence.

  • I enjoy seeing interesting movies and plays. [Does interesting apply to both movies and plays, or does it apply to movies only?]

  • I don’t know how soon you will realize that you are finding this information interesting, and you are beginning to apply it in all your conversations. [Does you will realize modify both your finding this information interesting and your beginning to apply it?]

  • This morning the students had to wait for their professor to begin learning about scope ambiguities. [Who is beginning to learn about scope ambiguities? Is it the professor or the students?]

  • I saw men and women on horses walking down the street. [What exactly did I see? Were the men and women both on horses? Were the men walking down the street at the same time women on horses were walking?]