Gold and Silver as Sacred Objects

Chandra Calvert

Throughout time the value of gold and silver has changed from sacred, to precious, and to an object of commodity. The order that has been presented is of no importance, however, but more specifically the terms. The question of how this value of gold and silver changed value is something that has puzzled many, including myself. To educate the reader it is first necessary to understand the terms, sacred, precious, and commodity. The term, sacred, can be defined as an object that derives from the gods. It is something not traded; it is hoarded. The idea here is that it is not circulated in an economic system. The term “precious” is similar in that it is highly regarded, but at the same instance, it is moveable. It has a quality that makes it important; it can still be traded. Finally when an object reaches the form of a commodity, it has no real identity, it is completely detached from group or individual and is traded.[1]

The focus of this paper shall look specifically at the Indians in the Bolivian/Andes region. This location was chosen because there was evidence of the changes that occurred in the value of gold and silver. Simply stated, the Indians in Incan culture viewed gold and silver as sacred objects. This value was changed drastically once the Spaniards colonized the Andes region. The Spaniards brought in their views and values and forced their way of life on these people. As a result the value of gold and silver as an object did change, as did everyday, Andean life.

The value of gold and silver was not the only change. The whole economic system of the Andean region also changed. The Incas did not have an economic system that had paper or metal forms of money. The Inca culture was based upon a system of reciprocity and barter. When the Spaniards came into the Andean region they imposed their own colonialist, capitalist greed upon the populace. It was this capitalist greed that ultimately changed the value of gold and silver.

The Andean Indians were encompassed by the Inca culture. However, Incas were a conquering force that had one time done the same thing that the Spaniards were doing during conquest. The subjugation and oppression of the people and the forced culture is a common theme of conquest. It is difficult to make an educated assumption however on exactly the view of gold and silver of pre-Inca times due to the lack of written works. However, there is secondary evidence from both sides that give information on the changing value of these precious metals. It is important to give information on both sides in order to get a complete picture. People shape events with their own interpretations, which is all that researchers can rely upon.

Along with the notion of the subjugation by the Incas, there is the idea of naturalization. This notion of naturalization is another dominant theme. The objective of any conquering force is to eventually make their culture dominant, and natural to the conquered people. As the Spanish rule was not natural to the Andean Indians, nor was the Inca rule natural at first. Of course this is an assumption that can be made due to that change is never seen as natural. However, over time, the bizarre and unnatural will become natural and be an intrinsic part of the culture.

It is important to note that the information that is being presented in this essay may not be complete, due to language barriers. I am relying upon translations and other anthropological work on the given subject. In addition to this barrier, there is the absence of the feminine viewpoint of this subject. There is a lack of readily available information on this particular aspect. As a result, this essay shall focus on the masculine aspect of this subject.

It is necessary to give the readers background information on the Inca culture and way of life just prior to the conquest by the Spaniards. This information will give the reader the information necessary to either believe the assumptions presented, or form their own interpretations.

The Inca were a conquering population that began its expansion in 1438, just before the introduction of the Spanish. The Inca culture was a very complex culture. Religion was a dominant theme, governing not only how people live, but also set up the social structure that ruled. The Sun was the primary God, which gave life to everything. However their religion focused on balance. The counter to the Sun was the earth, Pachamama. Each could not exist with out each other, and the earth and people would cease to exist without both.[2] Along with these two important figures, there were benevolent spirits as well. One could make the assumption that these were lesser gods. Sacrifice and the giving of gifts were essential to the gods and how they functioned. If something was going wrong in the world, it was because the gods were angry, and needed more tribute.[3] Thus the people lived their lives according to the gods and keeping them happy. This shows the strong importance of religion in their lives and consequently their view of gold and silver.

Each economic sector of Inca culture had its own spirits/gods. Since the focus of this paper is the value of gold and silver, the discussion shall lead to those spirits/gods. The miners of the Andean mountains had their own spirit whom they gave tribute to. This tribute ensured the success of not only finding these precious metals, but also the security of their own lives.

The interesting aspect of this miner’s god is the many names that are given to him, such as, el Tio, and Supay. Also, what is of particular interest is not only the miner’s loyalty to this god, but also the appearance of Tio that is conjured. Overtime the appearance of Tio has changed from either an Indian lord who works for the Spanish, to a Spaniard with blonde hair.[4] The emphasis here is on why the appearance of Tio has changed. As class discussion has determined, Tio can be seen as a representative of the oppression and subjugation of the miners. What is apparent with both the Inca and the Spanish is the emphasis on mining, and the accumulation of gold and silver. It can be determined that both cultures exploited the working classes for mass accumulation.

There is an ongoing assumption that the Spanish conquest of the Americas was one of the worst events in South American history. However, the Inca had participated in the same process of “naturalization” by force. Arguably, the Spanish conquest tried to wipe out the traditional identity, but their economic ideas forced upon the populace were no worse than the Incas.

The economic system imposed by the Inca elite was exhaustive. There was an emphasis on reciprocity. Pachacuti, an Inca ruler, who was attributed to the expansion of the Inca Empire, invented this system. The reciprocal system entailed giving gifts to those who agreed to participate in the program.[5] The idea of the “gift” is the obligation to return it with something of similar value.[6] Upon receiving gifts, the chiefs would then be summoned to reciprocate back to the ruler. Usually physical labor was provided in exchange for the gifts. The reciprocal economic system helped to build the capital city of Cuzco into a well-developed region.

This reciprocal system was also utilized for military activities. Gifts would be given to chiefs and if they chose to go back on their promise of reciprocating, then their land was taken by the Inca. The Inca were able to gain a great deal of land with this system.

This system however, was less than perfect. It demanded that surplus of agriculture and other goods go to the state to be used for gifts in the future and for redistribution. The Inca had claimed to have good intentions, but the written records show the populace’s resentment towards their rule.

These good intentions of redistribution did not work out so well. There was always the demand for more goods to give as gifts. Thus, the Indians were forced to perform more labor to give tribute to the ruler. However, the Indians still had their own parcels of land that they owned. This land could be used for whatever purpose, which included for pastures and agriculture. They could still be self-subsistent. The difference was that they were in no danger of losing their land to the Inca. As long as they paid tribute to their lord, then they would be safe.

There was a type of middle class in the Inca culture. These were specialized artisans, gold and silversmiths. They are commonly referred to as curacas. They were highly trained in their respective field, and could not switch between jobs. These men were also different in that they commonly were not a part of a community. This factor led them to have a loose loyalty. They solely relied upon bartering of sumptuary goods, and rewards for their work. What is important to note with this group is that they too were being exhausted in order to fulfill the needs of the ruler. When the Spaniards came into this region, the curacas were among the first to claim loyalty to them because they did not like the Inca system and thought the Spanish rule would be better.[7]

All gold and silver belonged to the Inca ruler because he was the son of God; he was a direct representative of God. Gold and silver belonged to the gods, and therefore it belonged to the Inca ruler. The value of gold and silver is only known by its treatment by the Inca rulers. All gold and silver was to be used for ceremonial purposes, or for jewelry. As a result, these items were strictly reserved for religious officials or people of high status.[8] Obviously this shows a sacred value of gold and silver. It could not be exchanged for other goods, and “regular” Indians could not possess these precious metals. Caciques, which were provincial chiefs, regularly went through the villages to ensure that no one possessed gold or silver.[9]

As a result the specialized labor of silver and goldsmiths were prized among the Inca. The mining was equally important. However it is important to note that gold and silver were not a part of the reciprocal economic system, it was used solely for the aforementioned purposes. This is exactly where it can be determined that gold and silver were sacred at this point.

Mining was done on the same basis of working the land for the state. Everyone was required to take his or her turn in providing labor for the state so the state could accumulate wealth. The positive aspect to mining was that they were not required to give additional contributions since their labor was giving the ultimate contribution.[10] The Incas were not demanding vast extraction of gold and silver, since it did not have a commodified value. Thus mining was not exhausting the resources or the labor. This would all change once the Spaniards entered the region. They saw gold and silver in a different manner, and thus treated the labor and extraction as such.

When the Spaniards came in the early 1500s, they came upon a culture that was much different from its own in not only religious aspects but economic as well. The Incas were seen as barbarian people that needed to be informed/ civilized. Even their economic system was seen as not civilized. Let it not be ignored the Spaniards’ ideas of vast accumulation of wealth that the gold and silver would provide them gave them the fuel to conquer.

There is a story of how the Spaniards found the rich, plentiful mines of silver in Potosi, which would be the main area that silver was mined. Father Bernabe Cobo recounts a story of a “cacique”, which was a lower chief, that had found a particularly large source of silver. He reportedly was going to take Pizarro, a Spaniard, to find this source.[11] This would lead to the discovery and exploitation of one the greatest mines in Andean history in the Potosi region.

Once the Spaniards gained control of the Andean region, they imposed a new kind of economic system. The Indians were now getting paid for their labor in the mines. This brought a lot of Indians to the mines. The extra wages that they collected from mining helped them since their land was gradually being taken away by the Spaniards. Before, there was some ownership of land so that the Indians could grow foods in order to survive. Now there was the absence of this, so the Indians were forced to wage labor.

Soon, the mines would be exhausted, due to the Spaniards’ demand for gold and silver. The work would become increasingly harder and more dangerous. The mining was going deeper into the mountainsides, whereas beforehand the silver and gold were abundant near the top of the soil. As a result of these factors the Indians that provided the labor in the mines were declining. It became increasingly harder to find Indians to provide the labor to meet the increasing demands of the Spaniards.[12]

Due the decrease in wage laborers, Viceroy Francisco de Toledo came up the “mita” system in 1573. This was a system that drafted Indians to work in the mines involuntarily. This forced labor was thought to be only temporary because the thought process was once a boom of silver extraction hit then everyone would want to come back to work. However, Toledo’s thoughts would not actually happen.[13] The mita system would continue to exploit the involuntary workers.

One author, Ward Stavig, made the assertion that the villagers of Cuzco, where the mita system was in effect, saw this system as advantageous. Service to the crown would guarantee them access to land.[14] This was an important element to the Indians. The past enabled them to own lands in which they could practice self-subsistence, but now with the colonialist economic system everything changed.

The change in the structure of labor in the Andes also changed their view on gold and silver. Instead of gold and silver going back to the gods, it was now being utilized as pretty object that symbolized material wealth. It was the Spaniards’ greed that forcibly changed the value of gold and silver for the Indians.

As I have illustrated in this essay, the value of gold and silver changed through out time. However the change can only be seen in the organization of the labor. Not only from the Inca to Spanish time frame but probably from the pre-Inca to the Inca as well. There is always the emphasis on the evilness of colonialism, and the exploitation of the people that it brings. However, it is rarely pointed out that the Inca too colonized the region, exploiting the people and changing the view on objects. However, this is my own assumption, and what the reader takes from this is another interpretation.

All gold and silver that was extracted from the mines was to go back to the government at hand, which was the Inca. One notion that can be assumed is that the Indians may not have put up such a tremendous fight about the change of the value, because they may have not recognized it as we have. Gold and silver was still something that they could not possess. These minerals were still going straight to the government of colonial powers. The difference now, is how the colonialist government was treating gold and silver, once it was in possession. They were treating it as a commodity; a commodity that required vast amounts of accumulation.

Another reason for the change in value was the attempt by the Spanish to Christianize the Indians. Indian religious foundations had gold and silver as sacred objects. Now their religious views were being destroyed by Christian ideals. However, the attempt of destroying their religion was not completely successful. The Indians continued their practices of tribute and sacrifice. What the Spaniards did destroy was the value of gold and silver as a sacred, religious. Now one of their religious objects was being extracted in large quantities and used as a commodity. Again, this is an assumption that all Indians viewed gold and silver as sacred. There is no real proof that the Indians were forcibly denied the right to possess gold and silver.

Another aspect of the history that has been laid out in this paper is the essence of Tio. It is interesting that Tio has changed shape with the onslaught of colonialism, not necessarily capitalism, as Taussig suggests. This indigenous culture does not necessarily see this as capitalism, but more a bad function of colonialism. It is the same argument of feudalism. Westerners coined this economic condition in Europe during the medieval times in this current era. The terms and definitions that westerners gave may not have been the same portrayal that people in the medieval era saw.

Definitely capitalism influences colonialism. This changes patterns of life for Andean Indians. Capitalism was the driving force of colonialism, as we know it. As has been explained before the Incas themselves colonized in their own manner. Capitalism had not necessarily fueled this kind of Inca colonization.

Ultimately economic changes fueled by Spanish colonialism changed the value of gold and silver from sacred to commodity based. The change of value cannot simply be blamed upon capitalism. The denunciation of Andean beliefs and exploitation of wage labor were the precise combination of factors that truly changed Andean outlook on gold and silver. No longer were these people’s rulers viewing gold and silver as sacred. These new rulers now saw gold and silver as a commodity; a measure of material wealth. The goal of the naturalization of colonialist views on gold and silver was nearly complete. However, the naturalization of the organization of labor would take some time.

Complete naturalization is not attainable. There will be a synchronization of beliefs and ideal that culminate from the oppressed and the powerful. The goal of colonialism may have been to exploit resources and naturalize a culture to their set of ideals. However, this is not what has resulted. Instead, there is an oppressed culture that has survived and maintained a part of their heritage along with adopting a part of colonialism.

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[1] Anthropology 345 Lecture Notes, 1/8/2001; sacred objects

[2] Nash, June. We Eat the Mines and the Mines Eat Us. Pg 124

[3] Nash, pg 134

[4] Nash, pg 164.

[5] Bakula, Cecilia, etc. The Inca World. Pg 177

[6] Anthropology 345 Lecture notes, 1/5/2001 on Mauss’ The Gift.

[7] Bakula, Pg 187

[8] Bakula, Pg 220

[9] Cobo, Father Bernabe. History of the Inca Empire. Pg 240

[10] Cobo, Pg 231-233

[11] Cobo, Pg 231-233

[12] Cole, Jeffrey. “The Potosi Mita…”, pg 1

[13] Cole, pg 1

[14] Stavig, Ward. “Continuing the bleeding…” pg 531

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Bakewell, Peter. Miners of the Red Mountain; Indian Labor in Potosi,

1545-1650. University of New Mexico Press. 1984

Bakula, Cecilia, Cuccio Bonavia, Laura Laurencich Minelli, Ramiro

Matos Mendieta, Jean-Pierre Protzen, Maria Rustworowski,

Izumi Shimadi. The Inca World; the Development of the Pre-

Columbian Peru, AD 1000-1534. University of Oklahoma Press.

2000

Cobo, Father Bernabe. ed. Roland Hamilton. History of the Inca Empire.

University of Texas Press. 1979

Cole, Jeffrey A. The Potosi Mita, 1573-1700; Compulsory Indian Labor

in the Andes. Stanford University Press, Stanford CA. 1985.

Nash, June. We Eat the Mines and the Mines Eat Us; dependency and

Exploitation in Bolivian Tin Mines. Columbia University Press.

1979.

Stavig, Ward. “Continuing the Bleeding of these Pueblos Will Shortly

Make them Cadavers; the Potosi Mita, Cultural Identity, and

Communal Survival in Colonial Peru” The Americas. Academy

Of American Franciscan History. Volume 56:4 April 2000,

529-562.