In LANG 350 you will write papers in which you will discuss selections from the literature assigned during the term. Unlike much creative writing, these papers should be written in a formal style, using standard English and avoiding slang and jargon. Also, unlike creative writing, in these papers the writer leads the reader through an argument, leaving almost nothing to inference or interpretation, but making explicit the relations and connections between ideas. These papers are most effective when the point is stated in the beginning--even in the opening sentence--and the discussion and illustration follow. If you save your point for the end, it may seem more like an add-on than an integral part of the paper. The element of surprise is not a virtue in this kind of writing.You will be given a few paper topics. Read them carefully. It is usually better to choose the one you feel best prepared to discuss, rather than the one that strikes your fancy. Topics chosen on a whim, like dates, usually lose appeal fast. Also, every paragraph of the paper should directly address the topic.
Reread the assigned texts and mark the passages you might want to use in your essay. Of the time you set aside for writing, spend at least one third drawing up an outline of your paper. It is instantly clear to a reader when a writer has started a paper with only a vague idea of where he or she will end. But with an outline writing goes more quickly, easily, and confidently. (Keep in mind this 1/3:2/3 ratio for other writing you do; it applies to in-class essays as well. If you have an hour to write, take 20 minutes to outline.)
A reminder: the most important aim of this course is the student's encounter with and understanding of ancient authors. That understanding is helped, first of all, by individual reading and study, then class lectures and discussions, out-of-class discussions, etc. Tests and papers are one more occasion for students to reread, more closely, and think about these books.
Additional directions follow:
1. Read the essay question or paper topic carefully.
Respond to what the question asks. Often a thesis, or even several possible theses, can be taken from how the question is stated.2. Have something to say, and say it clearly.
The paper should be the statement of a thesis--or a claim--and its logical exposition. Your thoughts, illustrated by examples from the text, should be prominent. Include the thesis statement in the introductory paragraph of your essay.3. The paragraph is the basic unit of an essay, and the opening paragraph is the most important.A thesis is a claim, not a statement of fact. It is an assertion that needs to be demonstrated by arguments and evidence.
Not a thesis statement:
Achilles's anger toward Agamemnon is very destructive for the Greeks.
This statement is a given. One could describe how the anger is destructive, who suffers, how it relates to the fall of Troy. But there is no need for argument, no need to "make the case".
A thesis statement:
In the Iliad Achilles shows his most heroic qualities at the funeral games for Patroclus.
This statement, on the other hand, is a claim that needs to be demonstrated and supported. It is not self-evident. Nowhere does Homer come out and say as much. The writer has to talk about different heroic qualities and show how the things Achilles does and says during the funeral games are heroic, but on another level.
Also, when you have a good thesis, you will often find that you are saying something that has not been stated by the professor. That's fine. Your paper will be evaluated on how well you make your case, how well you pick your examples and show an understanding of the poem. There is no limit to the number of good theses one could write about this poem.
The paragraph is the main developmental unit of a paper and each contains a major argument that relates directly to the thesis. Arguments presented in fewer than five sentences are usually undeveloped. Most require 8-12 sentences. A five-page paper will typically have 6-8 paragraphs.4. Examples are more effective by weight than by number.By the end of the opening paragraph your thesis should be clearly stated, the limits of the discussion set, and the terms of the question addressed. A restatement or paraphrase of the essay question is a weak opening. Show that you have given serious thought to the question.
Each paragraph opens with a topic sentence that says what the paragraph is about. The topic sentence should be general enough to cover everything contained in the paragraph.
Thinking is not over with the last paragraph of the body of the paper. The final paragraph, the conclusion, brings the paper to an end and gives a sense of confirmation of the thesis. A conclusion can include a new example of the main thesis of the essay, but the example must bring together the several arguments presented. An example that illustrates a broad theme that encompasses the main thesis can be effective. For the Iliad, this might be done by relating the thesis to the course of the Trojan War or the course of Achilles's anger. Now is not the time to raise new claims. Also, repeating phrases from the first paragraph of the paper is insulting to the reader. Someone said, "In a good speech you do three things: you tell them what you're going to tell them, you tell them, and then you tell them what you told them." This is condescending advice, except when the speaker has a good imagination and knows how to say the same thing in a variety of ways. But remember that five pages is precious little space in which to say something important, and no space at all for much repetition.
A few well-chosen examples are worth more than many loosely connected ones.5. Be specific.Don't just drop an example like a bomb in a paragraph and leave it to take some random effect. If the example is chosen well and well suited to your argument, it will take its place the paper with little effort. Make comments that will guide your reader to the interpretation of the example that you desire.
Also, the longer the text you cite, the more comment it requires. It's probably best to avoid quotes longer than 6 or 8 lines.
The paper should be as specific as possible, referring to particular passages in the literature (or to specific details in a work of art) to illustrate your discussion. Papers that do not get beyond general observations, no matter how useful and accurate, are like recipes for pizza that begin, "Take some flour, warm water, and yeast . . . ." Well yes, but?6. Don't summarize.
When you don't feel you have anything important to say, there is a strong temptation to summarize. Avoid paraphrasing, retelling, or summarizing the literature under discussion. This draws attention away from your thesis and the logical development of your discussion. People who summarize in essays are like the exhausted boxer hugging his opponent, longing for the bell that will end the round.7. Avoid unsupported assertions and conjectures.
Keep to the text.8. Don't use "I think," "I feel," "I believe," "In my opinion," etc.
It is assumed that the thoughts and opinions not attributed to others are your own. So, it is unnecessary to use the first person pronoun "I, "me," "my," etc.9. Choose a fitting title.Weak: I feel that Zeus is too harsh in his treatment of Prometheus.
Better: Zeus is too harsh in his treatment of Prometheus.
Give your essay a title that describes its subject accurately and refers to the theme or argument. There is room for creativity, but keep it focussed on the topic. (Avoid cuteness. Attempts at humorous titles usually sacrifice accuracy and are inconsistent with the tone of the paper.) Also, a very brief title can be vague. The title is the first signal to the reader of how well the writer has chosen and conceived the topic.10. Keep references to the text simple.Weak titles:
Achilles: Killing Machine
The Anger of a Hero
The Women of the Iliad
Better titles (already used):
Natural Beauty and Death: Battlefield Similes in the Iliad
Heroism at Rest: Achilles and the Funeral Games for Patroclus
The Sadness of Those Who Wait: Homeric Sympathy for the Women of Troy
Note references to the text not in footnotes or endnotes, but in parentheses following the passage cited.11. Provide a cover-sheet for your essay.
Attach a cover-sheet giving the essay's title, your name, the course, and the date. Fasten the pages of your essay together with a single staple in the upper left-hand corner. No plastic or other covers, please. And no decorative fonts and graphics. Direct your imagination and ingenuity to the content of your paper.12. Number the pages, preferably at the top.
13. Double space the text.
Quotations longer than three or four lines, however, should be indented and single-spaced; such quotations do not need quotation marks.14. Use eleven- or twelve-point Times New Roman font.
15. Remove spelling mistakes.
Keep a good dictionary at hand as you write. Proofread carefully. If you use a spellcheck program, be sure the correctly spelled word is the one you want. With spellcheck programs, spelling mistakes are down, wrong words are up. So, now we have grammarcheck. (Watch for the soon-to-be-released thoughtcheck.)16. Keep a copy of what you submit.
17. Take pride in your own good writing.
Take good writing seriously and people will take you seriously. The ability to write well reflects a clear and well-informed mind, an asset in any pursuit in life.(And be sure to turn in your paper at the beginning of class the day it is due. Any time after that, it looks suspiciously like last-minute work.)
Another brief guide for writing well is Jack Lynch's "Getting an A on an English Paper". He has a section on gathering research by using library resources (which may be useful in other classes, but not here). More details about good writing, including an alphabetized list of words commonly used in the wrong way and other problems can be found at Lynch's Grammar and Style Notes.
A handy little paperback brimming with sensible advice about writing with clarity and directness is Strunk and White's Elements of Style. William Strunk, Jr. wrote the book in 1919, and E.B. White (remember Charlotte's Web?) revised it in 1957 and again in 1972. It remains little (85 small pages) and very practical. Whether you intend to write speeches for presidents or letters to the editor of the Western Herald, Elements of Style will point you in the direction of leaner and more effective writing.
The gist of it is rendered in these sixty-three words:
Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts. This requires not that the writer make all his sentences short, or that he avoid all detail and treat his subjects only in outline, but that every word tell.The works we are reading this term have held the interest of centuries of readers, partly because every word tells. Our own writing should aim for as much.And, yes, there is an electronic version of Strunk's Elements from Columbia University.
The Writing Lab at WMU
If you have never written a paper before at the University, consider talking with the staff of the Writing Lab.
On weekdays phone ahead for a visit. Sunday evenings at Waldo Library students can drop in without an appointment.
Hours in 1039 Moore Hall:
Monday-Wednesday 9:00 a.m. to 9:00 p.m.
Thursday and 9 a.m. to 5:00 p.m.
Friday 9:00 a.m. to 2:00 p.m.Sunday 6:00 p.m. to 9:00 p.m., Waldo Library, Third Floor (at the tables by the central stairwell)
Phone: 387-4615
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Send comments or questions about papers to Prof. Johnson
Last revised: 18 September 1997