The Iliad, Books 13-20
The Iliad, Books 13-20
Book 13In Books 13 through 16 pressure continues to build against the Greeks until Patroclus is brought into the fighting. The means of bringing Patroclus to that point, however, will involve divine participation, giving these events much greater importance.
When Poseidon seeks to encourage the two Ajaxes in battle, he disguises himself as Calchas. What is the importance of this person to the Greeks and why is this a fitting disguise for Poseidon's purpose?
Among Trojans what is the stature of Aeneas?
As the Book closes, Ajax challenges Hector by the ships. What is the significance of the flight of the eagle (p.367, ll.948-49)? Why does it cheer the Greeks?
Book 14
Book 14 opens with two quarrels, one among men and one among gods. How does Odysseus address Agamemnon? Has he spoken to him in this manner previously in the poem? What does this reveal about the state of affairs on the Greek side?
How is Zeus temporarily taken out of the action? Compare this scene to the passage in Book 3 where Aphrodite brought Helen and Paris together. How are the scenes alike? How different?
What is so amusing about Zeus's response to the beautified Hera (p.380, ll.379-393)? The goddesses and women listed among Zeus's conquests all incurred the wrath of Hera for sleeping with him. Hera fought Heracles all his life long. Semele, mother of Dionysus, was tricked by Hera into making Zeus promise to appear to her in all his glory. A mortal, she was destroyed in the epiphany.
Who is the butt of the humor in this passage?
Is Zeus deceived? At what cost?
Does Hera get what she wants? What are the costs, anticipated and not anticipated?
Book 15
When Zeus rebukes Hera for intervening against his will, what does he declare that will have important consequences for the Greeks, and Achilles in particular?
Again, it is clear that Homer is not interested in suspense in the way we think of it. Otherwise, he would not give away so much of the story this far in advance. So how does he keep his audience's attention? A partial answer must be that he views the reader as a spectator of the drama taking place in the poem. The reader is watching not to see what will happen, but to see how people will respond to what happens. Homer takes great care with the particular details that produce the response. Then he spends much time tracking the phases of a character's response, because with the most important events, the response is not simple and immediate, but complex and evolving.
What is the state of the fighting in the closing lines of this book? How does Homer show the desperation of the Greeks?
Book 16
In tears Patroclus reaches Achilles and how is he received? What is the tone of the questions Achilles puts to his distraught comrade? What advice does Achilles give to Patroclus before his comrade goes into battle? What limits does Achilles impose on Patroclus? What does Achilles' advice reveal about his own plans?
Before sending his friend into combat, Achilles is at the height of his anger and blindness. In the light of Achilles' wish (p. 415, lines 115-19), what does Homer reveal about his present state of mind? Where is the mention of Agamemnon and the quarrel now? Who is the target of Achilles' anger? How does this compare with his description of his anger in Book 9? What do Achilles' remarks here have to do with the ideals of heroism reflected throughout the poem, if anything?
The Myrmidons, Achilles' troops, are described as they prepare to fight (p. 417, lines 187-194). How does the simile of the frenzied wolves differ from other similes Homer has written about men preparing for battle?
Before the troops begin to fight there is a catalogue of Achilles' captains (p. 418, lines 199-232). How does this compare with other catalogues Homer has used in the poem? What is its effect here?
How is the heroism of Patroclus presented before he reaches the city of Troy? What is the significance of his victory over Sarpedon? Who is Sarpedon? Where has he been mentioned before and in what connection?
How does Patroclus die? How does Apollo's role in his death compare with Hector's role?
As he gloats over the dying Patroclus, Hector charges him with foolishly trying to carry out Achilles' instructions? Did Achilles instruct Patroclus to take on Hector? What does this tell us about Hector's state of mind?
Just before he dies, Patroclus tells Hector that his death also is near. What is Hector's reply and, again, what does it tell us about his mental state? How do his words compare with his reply to Andromache when she revealed her fears to him (p. 210, lines 530-555)?
Book 17
Book 17 is chiefly occupied with the fight to recover the body of Patroclus. Despite the many assaults and counter-assaults by both sides, the body is not taken up decisively even by the end of this book. The armor of Achilles, that Patroclus had borrowed for battle, is recovered by Hector and will not return to its former owner. The episode runs the length of the Book, and emphasizes the importance of Patroclus as well as prepares for the impact of his death on Achilles.
In the events surrounding the recovery of the body of Patroclus, what are the signs of Hector's hybris and overconfidence.
The immortal horses of Achilles refuse to leave the site where Patroclus fell. Despite lashings by their driver, Automedon, they stand and weep (p. 456, lines 493-525). What does their grief do for the tone of the story at this point? How does their grief prepare for the events of Book 18? What brings the horses finally to get underway again?
At the end of this Book four similes occur in 26 lines, an especially thick cluster. What is the impact of putting so many similes here? What is fitting about the last simile--crows or starlings fleeing from a pursuing hawk--and how does it prepare for the action that takes place in Book 18?
Books 18-21
Homer could not have simply brought Achilles into direct confrontation with Hector without some preparation in the narrative. How does Homer develop the character of Achilles in the scenes leading up to his encounter with Hector?
Book 18
How does Achilles come to learn of his friend's death?
How is his grief for the death of Patroclus enhanced or magnified? Who joins him in mourning?
In his conversation with Thetis (pp. 470-71, ll. 113-50), what does Achilles now understand about his anger toward Agamemnon that he didn't realize before? What prevented Achilles from fighting before now? What images does he use to describe his earlier state of mind? How successfully do they describe his psychological condition?
Now that Achilles has resolved to avenge the death of his best friend, his own life will soon end. How does this new determination reflect on his earlier uncertainty about the reasons for coming to Troy (cf. Book 9)?
Before Achilles receives new arms, Iris comes to tell him that he must appear to the troops, even without weapons, and play a part in recovering the body of Patroclus. As he stands at the trench, he lets out a cry. What is the effect?
At the trench, Achilles is described as "Aeacides" twice. Aeacus is the son of Zeus, and father of Peleus. Why would Homer want to refer to him by his grandfather's name in this passage?
What is the importance of Achilles's having new arms made by Hephaestus? How does the description of the shield's art go beyond the natural or normal?
What is the significance of the scenes on the shield? Are these scenes a part of the heroic world of the men fighting at Troy? Under what circumstances might Achilles have enjoyed a life similar to what appears on the shield.
Some scholars argue that the passage was a later addition, saying that it doesn't fit with the rest of the story. What suggests that it was part of the original poem? How does it relate to the rest of the poem and its principal themes?
Two cities are described, one at peace, the other at war. In the trial that takes place in the city at peace, a quarrel has broken out over the blood-price for a murder victim. How does this quarrel promise to be resolved more peaceably than the quarrel at the center of this poem?
The description of the city at peace opens with a detailed look at a wedding procession. How does this image reflect on the theme of marriage in the poem?
What do the images of this description have in common with the images of the similes? What has been the function of these similes?
There is one simile in the entire description of the shield. In it an artisan shapes a pot on a wheel. How is this an apt figure in the present context?
THE SHIELD AFTER ACHILLES:
This description of so remarkable a shield was remembered in many stories that arose after the Iliad. The value of these weapons as a trophy of this War was too great to permit them to simply be tossed onto the heap with the rest of the spoils. In one of the later stories, following the death of Achilles, Odysseus and Ajax the Greater (Telamonian) quarreled over who deserved the weapons more. Odysseus, speaking more persuasively before the troops, was granted the weapons, despite strong feelings that Ajax was the better soldier. Humiliated, Ajax went mad and took his own life. (See Sophocles' play, Ajax.)
Book 19
Among other things, Book 19 points out the extent of forgiveness and reconciliation between Agamemnon and Achilles, and the two heroes' determination to press for their unique value to the Greeks. The promised gifts are presented to Achilles and publicly displayed, so that Agamemnon may gain some recognition for his generosity. Achilles's entry into the fighting will be put off briefly.
When the troops gather and Achilles rallies them to battle, what feelings does he express for Briseis now? How do they compare with his feelings for her as expressed in Book 1?
In their speeches before the assembled troops, both Achilles and Agamemnon attribute their irresponsible actions to atê (Ruin). Does the poet suggest that these two men are not responsible for their actions and that they do not deserve blame? How prominent was atê in Homer's original description of the quarrel between these two Greeks in Book 1?
Contrary to Fagles's translation at p.491, line 88, Agamemnon remains seated while he addresses the troops following Achilles's speech. Imagine the assembly: troops excited to see Achilles ready to return to battle, while Agamemnon and other heroes are weakened by wounds, and Agamemnon himself is about to turn over large amounts of gifts to Achilles. With this background consider Agamemnon's speech. How does he continue to seek to protect his reputation and stature among the troops in what he says here?
He says, "when a man stands up to speak, it's well to listen" (line 91). The implication is: Achilles is healthy because he has stayed out of danger, while some heroes and I have suffered wounds.
Agamemnon explains his affliction as caused by atê and recalls the story of how Zeus too was blinded by Ate at the birth of his son, Heracles, son of Alcmena. The god's actions caught the attention of Hera, who cursed the hero throughout his mortal life. What is the effect of Agamemnon's inviting comparison with Zeus?
What is Achilles's response to Agamemnon's efforts to exhibit the gifts he is offering him? What does Achilles's response reveal about the resolution of differences between himself and Agamemnon?
When the decision is finally made to prepare a feast and display the gifts for Achilles, what is Achilles's response? How is he affected?
Book 20
Again, before Achilles meets Hector in combat, he encounters other Trojans and defeats them, even Hector's brother, Polydorus.
What is decided by Achilles's confrontation with Aeneas? What does this combat serve to show?
Go to: SYLLABUS | Iliad, Books 1-4 | Books 5-12 | Books 21-24
Send comments to Prof. Johnson
Revised: 17 September 1997