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So he triumphed
and now he was bent on outrage, on shaming noble Hector.
Piercing the tendons, ankle to heel behind both feet,
he knotted straps of rawhide through them both,
lashed them to his chariot, left the head to drag
and mounting the car, hoisting the famous arms aboard,
he whipped his team to a run and breakneck on they flew,
holding nothing back. ( 22.465-472; transl. Fagles
)
The Iliad, Books 21-24
LANG 350--Classical Mythology
Book 21
Achilles continues his aristeia, his deeds of heroism on the battlefield. He pursues fleeing Trojans into the Scamander River, where he even becomes involved in a fight with the river itself. What are the human and cosmic dimensions of this combat with the river and what does this episode reveal about the importance of Achilles's participation in the War? What Olympians are not represented in the conflict about the river? What is the significance of Hera and Athena at odds?
Book 22
The focus of this book is on the duel between Achilles and Hector and the death of Hector. Speeches frame this action: at the beginning the pleas of Priam and Hecuba that Hector seek safety inside the city walls; at the end, the laments of Priam and Hecuba and, finally, of Andromache.
Note how Homer inserts throughout a narrative of psychological tension and physical violence, scenes of peaceful, domestic activities: Hector's vision of two lovers conversing, the women of Troy washing clothes outside the city walls, at home with Andromache, Andromache at the loom ordering servants to draw bathwater for her husband, memories of his wedding-day. How do these passages affect the prevailing sense of approaching death?
At first sight of Achilles, Hector bolts and runs around the city walls three times before he decides to stop and face his opponent. Why would an otherwise brave hero--one of the greatest at Troy--act so unheroically at this point? Does Homer wish to undermine the image of Hector, or is he sympathetic with the hero? How does he show his sympathies for him?
How is the death of Hector described? What is the role of gods in his death? What is the impact of his death on his family, his father, mother, wife, and infant son? Do these descriptions enhance the heroic stature of Achilles, of Hector? What is the point of such descriptions?
What terms does Hector seek to arrange with Achilles before he is killed? What prevents Achilles from complying?
Book 23
The two-fold theme unifying this Book is the dishonor shown the body of Hector and the honor shown the slain Patroclus.
Battle scenes are now over for the rest of the poem. How do the funeral games for Patroclus help us "catch our breath," after the actions of the preceeding books?
What events make up the funeral games? Note how the descriptions of the events, from the chariot race on, become increasingly shorter. What might be the point of this trend?
Note how Homer uses these athletic events to bring out qualities of character of the participants. What do we learn about Achilles? Nestor? Antilochus? Menelaus?
What qualities and characteristics of Achilles are illustrated by his participation in the games? How would you describe the relationship between him and Agamemnon in this book? What does his awarding Agamemnon the prize for the javelin-throw say about Achilles's attitude toward the Greek commander at this point in the story?
How does Achilles's image in this book contrast with the prevailing image he has shown thoughout the poem? His quarrel with Agamemnon was based on the king's taking something of value from him, and this loss Achilles was not able to put behind him until Patroclus was killed. Here, though, Achilles is shown to be generous in at least two important ways: he gives liberally of his goods to honor his slain friend, and he settles disputes over contests between competitors (i.e. Menelaus and Antilochus). He is fully integrated with the Greek force. His acts of generosity here are not confined to the Myrmidons, but dispensed throughout the force. This is a very different attitude from the one behind the words,
"Oh would to god--Father Zeus, Athena and lord Apollo--
not one of all these Trojans could flee his death, not one,
no Argive either, but we could stride from the slaughter
so we could bring Troy's hallowed crown of towers
toppling down around us--you and I alone!"
Book 16.115-19
The closing image of the book is Talthybius, Agamemnon's herald, accepting the prize for his master and carrying it back to his camp, the same Talthybius, whom Agamemnon had instructed to go and retrieve Briseis in Book 1 following the bitter exchange between the heroes. Using the same character emphasizes how dramatically different the situation is now.
The last 150 lines, or so, of this book show the grief, mostly of Priam and Andromache. How does Andromache come to learn of her husband's death? What activities is she involved in when she first senses something wrong? What do these activities represent? Like Hecuba, she too tears off her headdress, but what is different about the description that follows (p. 557, lines 552-55)? What do we learn in this passage about the significance of Astyanax's name? Why was it given to him? How does this scene now reflect on Hector's prayer for his son at the end of Book Six (p. 211, lines 568-574)?
Book 24
If this were your standard Western or Police movie, the story probably would have ended with the death of Hector, and maybe the destruction of Troy. Writers of these kinds of stories seek to hold our attention by appealing to our appetite for vengeance. We can't wait to see the cruel terrorist or the heartless gun-slinger blasted away by the hero. Once vengeance is achieved, the story is over. Once Achilles gets back at Hector for killing Patroclus, the story might have been over.
But Homer chose to end this story differently. Why? Vengeance was not
the opening or unifying theme of the story. It has really only been a
theme since Book 18, when Achilles first learned of the death of his
companion. Achilles's anger and its destructive effects have been kept
before our attention, though sometimes in the background, from the
beginning. And his anger and its effects are not satisfied by vengeance
now. His grief for his lost friend continues until the events described
in this book.
If Book 23 presents an image of a generous hero publicly bestowing prizes
and settling disputes, Book 24 opens with the hero privately tormented by
the loss of his dear friend and determined to get satisfaction through
abusing the corpse of Hector. Achilles remains bitterly vengeful. There
is much distance to cover before he comes around, yet Homer uses the same
number of lines as in previous books. The pace is quick. Note the length
of scenes and how often they change. What are the longest scenes in this
book?
This book portrays the concern for Hector's body and the divine as well as human pity which is evoked in his behalf. Achilles's continuing efforts to mutilate the corpse moves the gods, especially Apollo, to act. Hera resists. How does Zeus settle this dispute? What are the reasons for having Priam go to ransom the body? Why must Achilles be respected above Hector in this business?
How does Priam approach Achilles to ransom back the body of his son? What does he offer the Greek? Who accompanies him on his way? At what time of day does he set out and when does he arrive at the hut of Achilles? What is the significance of this?
As Priam and Idaeus, his attendant, cross the plain to the ships they are met by Hermes, disguised as a Myrmidon. Why are he and his companion so frightened by him? Aren't the odds two to one in their favor? How is Hermes' disguise ideal in Priam's circumstances? What can Priam learn from a Myrmidon, that he couldn't from a Trojan ally or even a Greek from another body of soldiers?
Before Hermes leaves, he reveals his identity and gives Priam advice
that is vital to the success of his mission. What is it? What do Priam's
first words to Achilles show about his regard for this advice?
As Priam appeals to Achilles he utters words of potentially deadly irony.
He recalls Peleus, Achilles's father: "...his old heart rejoices,
hopes rising, day by day, to see his beloved son come sailing home from
Troy." Priam surely does not know of Achilles's fate to die without
ever returning home. A more mean-spirited man might have seized the
opportunity to take offense and turn on Priam. But Achilles, instead,
sees in a light Priam could not have known, how closely linked are Priam's
and his own father's situations--both will know the loss of a valiant and
noble son. But even more tragic for Priam, the Trojan king will die, his
fellow citizens killed, their wives and children taken as slaves, and the
city looted. This realization prompts pity.
In his response to Priam, Achilles refers to Troy as a city whose glory
lies in the past. The implication is that since the arrival of the
Greeks, Troy has suffered economic decline. Borders are smaller, revenues
less, supplies short. There may not have been a clear idea of when the
city would fall, but all are aware that the ten-year war has reduced
Troy's stature in the area significantly. And its collapse cannot be
far off.
When Priam presses Achilles for an exchange without further delay--ransom
for body--Achilles lashes out and even threatens the king with death if he
does not wait for things to be done in order. How do you account for this
abrupt change of attitude? Only moments before the two were weeping over
present circumstances, and now Achilles threatens he may lose his
composure and take the life of Priam.
Two possible explanations come to mind. The exchange is a private matter,
between Priam and Achilles. The Greeks at large, and probably the
Myrmidons outside Achilles's tent, are unaware of what is taking place
here. If they were, Agamemnon would have to call an assembly and debate
would ensue, and a decision made based on circumstances far beyond the
immediate interests of these two. It is precisely this that Achilles
wishes to avoid if at all possible. Should Priam see his son's corpse,
even miraculously preserved, he might be shocked and react in an
irrational manner that would call attention to other Greeks. Achilles
wants the situation handled between himself and the king, and the king
should allow for the preparation of the body before he sees it.
Describe Achilles's hospitality toward the king--how does he
accommodate him with food and lodging? How does Priam receive his
hospitality?
Recall the meeting of Diomedes and Glaucus at the beginning of Book 6, and how different sides in the War took a back seat to personal friendship between their grandfathers and, therefore, between themselves. At what point in the meeting between Priam and Achilles do such personal relations seem to surface? Do the two opponents ever fully forget their sides in the War?
In what condition is the body of Hector when it is returned? How and by whom is the body prepared for return?
Priam and Idaeus, in tears, return with the body. Cassandra, daughter
of Priam, first notices their return and cries out the news to the city,
whose inhabitants stream out of the gates to receive the group.
Singled out by Homer in their grief are the women of Book 6: Andromache,
Hecuba, and Helen. Andromache mourns her loss in terms of herself, her
son, and the city; Hecuba takes comfort in the recovery and preservation
of the body; and Helen mourns the loss of her greatest defender among the
resentful Trojans. How does each contribute to the impression of the loss
felt by the death of Hector?
Under conditions of truce offered by Achilles--again, as in Book 23, he
acts in the interest of all Greeks--and accepted by Priam, the Trojans
have twelve days to honor Hector with burial and a feast. Timber is
gathered for nine days, the body burned on the tenth, then quickly buried
under fear the Greeks may launch a surprise attack.
How does the final scene of this book mark a fitting conclusion to the
theme of the anger of Achilles, the theme of the entire poem?
The poem ends with a sense of urgency and haste--the Greeks are ready
and eager to attack, only this time, with Hector gone, Trojan resistance
is severely reduced. Achilles's end also has been foretold by himself, by
the gods, and other Greeks. Even Priam, now, knows this. Book 1 opened
with no sense that the fall of Troy was any closer than when the Greeks
arrived. There was no precise indication of progress on either side. No
territory claimed for the Greeks. No serious threat of Trojans driving
the Greeks away. Now, however, the Greeks are in their strongest position
ever to take the city. The fall of Troy is imminent. While Homer has
remained focused throughout the poem on the theme of Achilles's anger and
its devastating effects, he has set the events of the quarrel with
Agamemnon at a point in time that makes their impact on the course of the
War decisive. Though the poem does not get its unity from the Trojan War,
the course of the War has given these actions greater dramatic
urgency.
Go to: SYLLABUS | Iliad, Books 1-4 | Books 5-12 | Books 13-20
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Revised: 17 September 2002