Hesiod, Works and DaysThe Works and Days is a poem of advice for farmers about the schedule for performing their various agricultural activities. But it is more than an ancient Greek version of the Farmer's Almanac. Hesiod uses this form of writing to comment on the origins of institutions that affect the life of humankind. So, while the Theogony dealt with the origins of the gods, this poem deals with the origins of some important human institutions. A story about the origin of a custom, a natural phenomenon, or some established practice is called an etiology. Two important etiologies in this poem are the story of the beginning of manual labor in the account of the races of humankind, and the creation of woman and her characteristics in the account of Pandora.
Prometheus profoundly changed the course of life for mortals. Without his assistance humans would have remained in an agricultural existence. With Prometheus's gift of fire came the development of technologies previously unknown. Fire made possible the cooking of meat and the smelting of metals to form tools. Prometheus also raised the level of intelligence of humankind. He was regarded as a pagan savior figure.
Study Questions
How does Hesiod characterize Prometheus's role in the story of the Works and Days? Savior or Spoiler? How does Hesiod judge Prometheus's contributions to the lives of mortals?
The gods of Olympus are very jealous of the gulf that separates themselves from mortals, and they accept no improvement of the condition of humans willingly. Power given to humans means a decline of the regard and reverence owed the gods. Therefore, if Prometheus confers benefits on mortals, the gods will exact a price from him, and they will devise a counter-measure to offset those benefits and bring humans back into condition of acceptable humility.
Enter Pandora.
How do Pandora and her jar serve the divine need for keeping mortals subordinate and humble?
What prompts the gods to create Pandora? As you read the account of Pandora, what are the qualities of this creature? Is she a goddess or a mortal, or a combination like some female hero? Is there anything virtuous about her? Anything about which the poet speaks with approval?
In what terms is the golden race or generation described? How is it better than succeeding races? Technologically? Politically? Intellectually? Morally?
How many races of humankind does Hesiod describe? What are their characteristics? Of what race is he a member? Is there a trend in the sequence of ages?
What is the direction of development in the accounts of the races or stages of humankind? How would an ancient person of Hesiod's outlook regard the modern idea of progress, that we improve with every new discovery, invention, or advancement in knowledge? How would someone with Hesiod's worldview regard microwave cooking or high definition TV? Are we better because we have the means to fight hunger or disease more effectively?
Are the ages purely imaginative, or is there a historical element to any of them?
Theme of Decline in Ancient Oratory
Students in the ancient schools studied topics which could be applied in many speaking situations. One of the most useful was the locus de saeculo or topic [based] on generations. This topic was based on the general belief that times were better in the past and that the morals of contemporary society, by comparison, represented a stage of decline. Its flexibility made it useful in a variety of situations. One could defend an accused person by begging indulgence due to the corrupt behavior of the day, in contrast to past generations. One could attack someone for not living up to the standards of their own parents, grandparents, or earlier ancestors.
An Ancient Theme Survives
Is this rhetorical figure used successfully today? Consider the theme of Ronald Reagan's campaign for change in 1980, to "make America great again," (i.e. as it once was, but isn't now under the administration of Jimmy Carter.) Abuse of this figure was amusingly satirized in Dana Carvey's "angry old man" routine on Saturday Night Live in the 80's. "When I was a kid, we used to walk fifty miles to school,...in the snow,...barefoot, ...and we liked it!"
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Revised: June 24, 1995