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(Thu/Fri
p.m.) |
(Thu/Fri
a.m.) |
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Office hours: |
Thu.
11:00-1:00 p.m. |
M/W
3:00-4:00 p.m. |
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Email: |
General Approach to Lab: The
laboratory session is a setting in which you will be encouraged to develop and
test your own hypotheses to explain the observations you make Each week the exercises will be used to
test your ideas. We will also
encourage you to observe ecological interactions and learn methods to test your
hypotheses. You should come
prepared to participate, question, reason and perhaps be ready to feel wet,
cold, and muddy on one or two occasions.
Attendance: Attendance in lab is
required. It is important that you
come to class on time. Many of the
labs will involve work outside and off campus. If you are late or absent it will be difficult to make up
the work. Therefore, missing a lab
period will result in zero credit for the exercise of that day.
Field Work: Since many of the labs
will involve field trips, these exercises will require us to be outside for the
majority of the lab period. Please
dress appropriately for the weather conditions because we will be outside
unless there is lightning, tornados or a blizzard.
Lab Grades: The lab will contribute
42% of your total course grade.
Homework and weekly quizzes will determine your lab grade as indicated
below. Your grade will be posted
by the last 4 digits of your social security number.
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Quizzes
(10 at 10 points each) |
100 |
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Total |
500 |
Quizzes: A quiz
will be given at the beginning of each lab period covering the previous weeks
exercise or material covered in lecture.
Therefore it is crucial for you to keep up on all material covered in
the lab. Quiz questions will be in
a variety of formats including: short answer, multiple choice, and statistical
applications. Remember to bring a
calculator to every lab. Quizzes
account for 20% of your lab grade.
Lab Reports: The purpose of lab reports
is to ask you to think critically and insightfully about the concepts covered in
lab. Many of the labs will require
you to apply statistics to evaluate hypotheses successfully. For this reason, the lab reports
account for 75% of your lab grade.
Because of the broad range of topics covered in this course, assignments
may vary widely in format, but will usually be in the form of a lab
report. Please ask us if you are
unsure about what you need to complete for credit. Assignments must be typed and stapled. Lab reports will be collected at the
beginning of the lab period.
Structure of Lab Reports: Scientific results must be communicated to be of
value and so a large part of the process of doing ÒscienceÓ involves written
communication. Such communication
shares ideas, experimental results, analyses and interpretations within the framework
of established, published knowledge and understanding.
Clarity is essential in scientific writing and in the
last 100 years this has been formalized into a widely accepted system known as
ÒIMRADÓ which stands for Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results,
and Discussion. These are the major elements of a
scientific paper and this is usually the order in which they are
presented. The IMRAD system
provides a standardized way to present the results of scientific
investigation. While this system serves
as a general pattern for research articles published in many journals, each
journal may have a unique set of rules.
These rules, or ÒInstructions for AuthorsÓ specify how papers submitted for publication are to
be written. Often these rules
specify such things as margin settings, line spacing, font size, or even
accepted abbreviations. A paper
submitted for publication that does not follow these rules will usually be
rejected.
For your lab reports you will use the IMRAD system
and the simple rules described below and summarized in ÒHow to Write and
Publish a Scientific PaperÓ 4th
edition, by Robert A. Day (© 1994 Oryx Press). LetÕs further explore the IMRAD system and how to write each
section of your report.
(1)
Title Ð the title is probably the most important element
of your paper because this is what is used to index and reference the paper and
conveys content to the reader.
Short titles that accurately convey the content of the paper are best
and should adhere to these rules:
a.
The title should be
informative and short.
b.
Always include
scientific names and higher taxonomic categories of the organism being studied
(For example, a study of bullfrogs should include, ÒRana catesbeiana (Amphibia: Anura)Ó in the title).
c.
ÒCuteÓ titles are not
acceptable.
(2)
Introduction Ð This section should be written in the present
tense and should bring the reader up-to-date on any background information
relevant to the present study. There
is also a strong new movement in the scientific community to write in the first
person Ð this helps to claim ownership of your work. The
introduction should explain concepts and terms important to the study and last,
but not least, it should state your research hypothesis. Thus the introduction should include:
a.
A statement of the
hypothesis you will be testing by conducting the experiment. Present the nature and scope of the
problem being investigated. Do
this in a reasonable and understandable way so readers will remain interested.
b.
Normally, the
introduction will include a review of the related literature to orient the
reader and justify the research.
You will not be required to do a literature review for lab reports, but
you should include an explanation of the concepts and ideas related to the
experiment being performed. This
is also the place where you should define terms that may not be familiar to the
reader. Use your textbook and
lecture notes if necessary.
In summary,
the introduction should allow any non-ecologist to understand the concepts
behind the experiment and what you hope to find by doing the experiment.
(3)
Materials and
Methods Ð This section should be
written in past tense and provides the reader with information about the
equipment and supplies and how they were used. Do not simply prepare a list of the materials. This section must give enough detail so
any intelligent person could repeat the experiment exactly. If this is not accomplished, then your
experiment and the data collected are considered invalid. The key to scientific investigation is
that the methods used in an experiment can be duplicated and the results
verified.
The
description of equipment and supplies should include technical specifications,
quantities, and source of methods (if known). Do not ignore information related to any living organism used. Be sure to include genus, species, age,
sex, and where you obtained the organisms (if known).
When
describing the methods, you will usually do so in chronological order. The only exception to this rule is that
you should describe similar methods in the same part of this section. Be sure to include exact measurements
(in SI units only Ð no imperial measures!). It has been suggested that this section read like a recipe. While the lab handout gives an overview
of your methods, your description should be much more detailed.
(4)
Results Ð This section should be written in the past
tense. Traditionally, papers were
written in the passive voice, but increasingly, all sections of modern papers
are written in the active voice.
The passive voice was thought to reflect greater deductive reasoning and
active voice was thought to imply inductive arguments. However, we now think that active voice
reflects research ownership and greater accountability for published results.
The results section is where you present your
data. A typical paper will usually
never include all of your data (note: data are always plural!). The experiments you conduct are fairly
simple, thus you will be expected to include all of the data collected, unless
instructed otherwise. Only perform
statistical tests if they are meaningful to your experiment. These numbers are usually presented in
tables and figures (graphs), but not always. Use a table to present a large group of numbers. If you have only a few numbers
incorporate them as text. A table
or graph should include enough information to be fully understood without any
further information. This means
that you need informative legends for the tables and figures.
You will decide how to present your data, whether in
a table, graph or text. Regardless
of how you present your data, be sure to follow appropriate rules and
standards. If you do decide to use
tables and graphs, they should be referenced in chronological order in the
text.
You will also be instructed as to what statistical
tests are appropriate in what situations.
Be sure the results are stated clearly Ð this is the part of the paper
where you are sharing new knowledge with the rest of the scientific community
and beyond. Finally, avoid
repeating in the text what you have presented in tables and figures.
Rules
for Tables:
a.
Only use a table for
repetitive data that must be included.
b.
Tables should be
numbered sequentially (Table 1, Table 2, etcÉ.).
c.
A table should have a
title or legend in the form of a sentence, which adequately describes the
information being presented in the table.
d.
It is not always
necessary to use every bit of data collected.
e.
Only include variables
measured, not standard conditions.
f.
Elements of a table
should read down.
g.
Only use horizontal
lines separating major sections of the table. Vertical lines will rarely be used.
h.
Include a legend under
the table to provide all of the information necessary to understand the data
being presented.
Rules
for Figures (Graphs):
a.
Any data that would not
normally be included in a table should not be included in a graph.
b.
Figures, like tables,
should be numbered sequentially.
c.
A figure should also
have a title (legend) in the form of a sentence to describe adequately the
information being presented. This
legend should be placed after the Figure 1, etc., and be below the figure
itself.
d.
If the data show a
trend that would make an interesting picture, create a graph.
e.
Be sure each data point
is clearly distinct (use open circles, squares, or triangles). Use a separate symbol for each data
series and connect data points with a straight line.
f.
Never include more than
four series of data on each graph.
g.
Label both axes and the
origin appropriately with large letters so it is clear and readable. Be sure correct units are included.
h.
Include a legend so the
reader can fully understand and interpret the graph. Be sure to include a key to the symbols if appropriate.
(5)
Discussion Ð The primary purpose of the discussion is to show
the relationships among the observed facts. Try to keep this section short and to the point. Avoid writing a long ÒwordyÓ
discussion. A good discussion will
do the following:
a.
Present the principles,
relationships, and generalizations shown by the results.
b.
Show how your
observations agree with or contradict field observations (if known).
c.
State your conclusions
as clearly as possible. Your
conclusions are your opinion and by definition are never wrong, as long as you
back them up (see d).
d.
Summarize your evidence
for each of your conclusions. This
is the part where you back up your opinion with observations made and data
collected.
e.
Tell whether or not the
results support or reject your research hypothesis as stated in the
introduction.
f.
Suggest further
experiments that will explore the same problem, or new questions that have been
prompted by the results obtained.
(6)
Literature Cited Ð Although you are not required or expected to use
citations other than your ecology text and lecture notes, if you do use them,
you must cite them
appropriately. Consult a recent
issue of the journal Ecology or
other primary literature source for format and content
ÒWe train ecologists in our universities and even
employ them in our governmental agencies but we seldom take their advice.Ó
- Rachel Carson