Department of Biological
Sciences,
Western Michigan
University.
3151 Wood Hall, tel:
387-5604, e-mail: "steve.malcolm@wmich.edu"
Office hours: Monday-Wednesday 10:00
a.m.-12:00 noon,
or by appointment
Spring semester 2006
Monday-Wednesday, 2:00-3:50 p.m.
Room 1106 Wood Hall
Goal: To
develop an appreciation for interdisciplinary understanding of chemically
mediated interactions among organisms at different scales of organization from
molecules to ecosystems, through lectures, reading, multi-media, discussion and
hands-on research.
Objectives: To develop
skills in the following:
¥ Analytical
thinking.
¥
Discipline-specific information acquisition and analysis.
¥ Communication
and discussion.
¥ Interaction
among ideas, deductive hypotheses and methods.
¥ Value of
interdisciplinary synergism (how methods from one discipline can allow another
discipline to ask and develop new questions).
¥ Hierarchical
and scaling interactions among different levels of organization from molecules
to ecosystems.
COURSE
DESCRIPTION
What is Chemical Ecology? It is a hybrid.
It is a synergism that benefits from the product of ecologists and chemists talking to each other and
borrowing ideas and methods to produce something that is greater than the sum
of its components.
This sounds idealistic, but it really seems
to work. Each year at the annual
meeting of the International Society for Chemical Ecology (ISCE), chemists and
ecologists from around the world meet and enjoy considerable rapport and
productivity, even if they do not always understand the esoterics of each
other's discipline. Nevertheless,
it is common to hear chemists chide ecologists for thinking that chemistry is
simple "cookery" and ecologists mutter about chemists thinking that
ecology is just "common sense" or Ònatural history.Ó But the friendly bickering is useful
and keeps both sides on their toes as they justify their disciplines and
enhance the synergism.
Perhaps the greatest value from the
interaction between chemists and ecologists is the depth of understanding that
we gain about chemically mediated interactions in nature. Chemists have developed wonderfully
sophisticated methods for routine screening of thousands of naturally occurring
chemicals in minute quantities.
Such accurate and sensitive screening means that ecologists can search
for the patterns of variation that they find so fascinating and try to explain
the reasons for observable phenomena.
So the chemist is happy with new and intriguing biologically active
chemicals and the ecologist is happy with reams of data on how the same
chemicals vary quantitatively and qualitatively in both space and time. Most recently, techniques in molecular
genetics now allow us to measure the timing and extent of gene expression so
that we can understand more precisely the links between chemistry and
phenotypic expression of genes in ecological interactions.
In her foreword to the course text, the
renowned chemical ecologist, Miriam Rothschild tells the story of how brightly
colored danaid butterflies were found to be toxic because they feed on
poisonous plants. She says that, "...it
was T. Reichstein's matchless and trustworthy chemistry which suddenly floodlit
the scene and linked the herbivores and their host plants in a biochemical
synthesis. .... Reichstein's identification of ten cardiac glycosides in both D. plexippus and its food
plant seemed to be the spark which ignited a small conflagration ..... Such an explosion of interest -- embarras de richesse --
leaves the scene in some sort of confusion, and we can now be grateful to
Jeffrey Harborne for drawing the scattered pieces of the jigsaw together,
thereby achieving a synthesis, richly flavoured with his own original ideas and
lucid interpretations."
Jeffrey Harborne was a good friend of
Miriam Rothschild's (who sadly died aged 96 in January 2005) and with her he is
one of pioneering parents of chemical ecology. Arguably, chemical ecology was born 36 years ago with the
publication of Lincoln Brower's 1969 paper on ÒEcological BiochemistryÓ, the book by Sondheimer and
Simeone in 1970 called ÒChemical EcologyÓ, and Whittaker and Feeny's 1970 paper on ÒAllelochemicalsÓ; even though some very
influential papers were published by Dethier in 1954, Fraenkel in 1959 and
Ehrlich and Raven in 1964 (see bibliography for citations).
In this course we will emphasize a more
ecological framework than the mostly biochemical approach of Jeffrey Harborne's
book. We will do this to try and
make a bit more conceptual sense of chemical ecology so that we can complete the
course by trying to answer the question, "Is interdisciplinary
understanding between ecology and chemistry productive?"
COURSE STRUCTURE AND
EVALUATION
Each Monday session will start with a
50-minute lecture by Steve Malcolm on the relevant topic. After a short break, the sessions will
continue with one 20 minute student presentation on an in-depth aspect of the
weekly topic, followed by 30 minutes of discussion. Each Wednesday session will be focused on research in
chemical ecology either in room 1106 Wood hall, or in Steve Malcolm's
laboratory (3440 Haenicke Hall).
Presenters will be awarded marks for the presentations and marks will
also be awarded to all discussion participants as described below. So if you find it difficult to talk in
public, it would be a good idea to try and make some kind of contribution to
the discussion by being well-prepared each session - no constructive comments
can ever be considered pointless or silly, so please come prepared to say what
you think, or at least try.
The laboratory session will be organized
into group projects over the semester, as indicated in the schedule. The project will be discussed in the
first lab session in room 1106 Wood hall on Wednesday, January 11.
Each research group will also submit a
coauthored research paper on their work and make a joint PowerPoint¨
presentation of their work to the class in a ÒResearch SymposiumÓ on April 17 & 19. The research paper should follow the
style and content of articles in the Journal of Chemical Ecology. This research paper must be handed in no later than April
21. Of course you are very welcome
to hand it in earlier and you are welcome to discuss it with Steve Malcolm and
submit a draft before final submission.
This paper will be marked critically as though you were submitting it
for publication. It should be
readable, grammatically correct (and spelling checked) and must be
word-processed. The source of
figures used, data, quotes and ideas that you do not generate must be fully
acknowledged and plagiarism must be avoided.
Performance in the course will be assessed
on the basis of the points listed below awarded for presentation, research and
two exams. Each of the two exams
will be based on take-home questions that should be answered with short,
succinct essays, and figures.
|
|
|
points |
|
Paper presentation |
100 |
|
|
Research Exercise: |
300 |
|
|
|
Laboratory notebook |
100 |
|
|
Research paper |
100 |
|
|
Research presentation |
100 |
|
Exams |
200 |
|
|
|
Midterm exam (Feb 22) |
100 |
|
|
Final Exam (April 24) |
100 |
|
|
TOTAL |
600 |
Grading
scale:
|
A = >90% |
BA = >85% |
|
B = >80% |
CB = >75% |
|
C = >70% |
DC = >65% |
|
D = >60% |
E = <60% |
Paper presentation:
I would like each person to make
a PowerPoint¨ presentation of an assigned paper to the class and
encourage discussion of the paper and concept. The paper will be relevant to the topic for that week and
either I will assign the paper or you may choose a paper (with my approval)
that you would like to present.
The evaluation rubric for this
presentation is as follows:
|
|
|
points |
|
1. |
Overall
presentation - general overview |
20 |
|
2. |
Content
of the presentation - accuracy and depth of communication |
10 |
|
3. |
Handout
- quality of handout given to the class as a summary |
10 |
|
4. |
Understanding
- relative level of appreciation for the material |
10 |
|
5. |
Clarity
of presentation - ability to communicate the material clearly |
10 |
|
6. |
Stimulate
questions - ability to generate discussion about the paper |
10 |
|
7. |
Handle
questions - ability to explain the material |
10 |
|
8. |
Other
material - use of other relevant papers, visual or other aids |
20 |
|
|
TOTAL |
100 |
Research Exercise:
For
the research exercise I would like you to work in groups. For spring 2006 there are 11 students
in the class and I would like you to be a member of one of four research groups
– 3 groups of 3 each and 1 group of 2. Each of the following three research activities will be
assessed as a member of a group – so all group members receive the same
score. I hope this will encourage
you to work together.
Laboratory notebook:
Your group should have a bound,
lined notebook to record all lab activity in each group. The purpose of this notebook is to
follow Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) and make sure that your work is
verifiable, ethical and accurate.
This record also assures your ownership of your own work and so all
entries should be signed so that you know who did what. A basic criterion for deciding how much
detail to include could be the possible need to understand a year from now
exactly what you did and who did it.
I will assess your notes as follows:
|
|
|
Points |
|
1. |
Detailed description of work
done and observations made |
20 |
|
2. |
Null and alternative
hypotheses created based on observations made |
20 |
|
3. |
Complete accounts of all data
collected |
20 |
|
4. |
Analyses of data included in
notebook |
20 |
|
5. |
Future research suggested by
results and possible errors made |
20 |
|
|
Total |
100 |
Research paper:
The group research paper should
follow your group notebook with an account of observations, hypotheses,
methods, results and discussion.
The paper should be modeled after research papers in the Journal of
Chemical Ecology (see
instructions for authors at: http://www.springer.com/sgw/cda/frontpage/0,11855,4-10027-70-35674461-0,00.html?detailsPage=contentItemPage&contentItemId=143542&CIPageCounter=CI_FOR_AUTHORS_AND_EDITORS_PAGE0) and structured as follows with
each section assigned points as indicated:
|
|
|
points |
|
1. |
Introduction: Description
of observations made and hypotheses tested |
20 |
|
2. |
Methods: Description
of all methods used to test hypotheses |
20 |
|
3. |
Results: Description
of results and statistical analyses |
20 |
|
4. |
Discussion: Assessment
of the significance of your results |
20 |
|
5. |
Figures
and tables: Graphical
and tabular summaries of your results |
20 |
|
|
Total |
100 |
Research presentation:
The research presentation should
follow the structure of your paper and will be evaluated in the same way as the
paper presentation based on a published paper:
The 8 criteria are:
|
|
|
points |
|
1. |
Overall
presentation - general overview |
20 |
|
2. |
Content
of the presentation - accuracy and depth of communication |
10 |
|
3. |
Handout
- quality of handout given to the class as a summary |
10 |
|
4. |
Understanding
- relative level of appreciation for the material |
10 |
|
5. |
Clarity
of presentation - ability to communicate the material clearly |
10 |
|
6. |
Stimulate
questions - ability to generate discussion about the paper |
10 |
|
7. |
Handle
questions - ability to explain the material |
10 |
|
8. |
Other
material - use of other relevant papers, visual or other aids |
20 |
|
|
TOTAL |
100 |
Exams:
The two exams will be take-home
exams in which essay-style answers will be expected in response to asked
questions. The answers will
require access to relevant literature.
Academic integrity:
Cheating, fabrication and plagiarism will
result in a score of zero for the relevant activity and will be treated as
described under ÒStudent Rights and ResponsibilitiesÓ on pages 274-278 of the
2003-2005 Undergraduate Catalog.
ÒYou are responsible for making yourself aware of and understanding the policies and procedures in the Undergraduate Catalog (pp. 274-276) that pertain to Academic Honesty. These policies include cheating, fabrication, falsification and forgery, multiple submission, plagiarism, complicity and computer misuse.
The academic work you submit must reflect your own efforts. Where language or ideas are taken from
other sources, you must take care to properly cite those sources. Any required papers for this class may
be subject to submission for textual similarity review to plagiarism detection
software under license to WMU. All
papers submitted will be included as source documents in that reference
database solely for the purpose of detecting plagiarism of papers subsequently
submitted to the system. Students
who take this class must be prepared to submit an electronic copy of an
assignment if requested. If a
student is asked to submit a paper electronically this does not necessarily
imply suspected plagiarism.
If there is reason to believe you have been involved in
plagiarism or another form of academic dishonesty, you will be referred to the
Office of Student Conduct. You will be given the opportunity to review the
charge(s). If you believe you are not responsible, you will have the
opportunity for a hearing. You should consult with me if you are uncertain
about an issue of academic honesty prior to the submission of an assignment or
test.Ó
CHEMICAL ECOLOGY -
COURSE SCHEDULE Spring 2006
|
Week |
Date |
Chapter |
Chapter |
|
A. INTRODUCTION |
|||
|
1. |
January 11 |
Introduction
to CHEMICAL ECOLOGY |
Foreword |
|
B. CHEMICAL ECOLOGY OF PLANT-ENVIRONMENT
INTERACTIONS |
|||
|
2. |
January 16 |
Martin-Luther
King Day |
|
|
2. |
January 18 |
Research
– room 1106 Wood Hall |
|
|
C. COMMUNICATION |
|||
|
3. |
January 23 |
The abiotic
environment |
Chapter 1 |
|
3. |
January 25 |
Plant-animal
communication. |
Chapter 2 |
|
4. |
January 30 |
Animal-animal
communication. |
Chapter 8 |
|
4. |
February 1 |
Research |
|
|
D. COMPETITION |
|||
|
5. |
February 6 |
Animal
competition. |
Chapter 8 |
|
5. |
February 8 |
Research |
|
|
6. |
February 13 |
Plant
competition. |
Chapter 9 |
|
6. |
February 15 |
Research
(mid-term exam available) |
|
|
E. TROPHIC INTERACTIONS |
|||
|
7. |
February 20 |
Plant-pathogen. |
Chapter 10 |
|
7. |
February 22 |
Research
(mid-term exam due) |
|
|
SPRING
BREAK |
|||
|
9. |
March 6 |
Plant-insect. |
Chapters 4
& 5 |
|
9. |
March 8 |
Research |
|
|
10. |
March 13 |
Plant-vertebrate. |
Chapters 4
& 6 |
|
10. |
March 15 |
Research |
|
|
11. |
March 20 |
Animal-animal. |
Chapter 8 |
|
11. |
March 22 |
Research |
|
|
12. |
March 27 |
Tritrophic
interactions. |
Chapters 3
& 7 |
|
12. |
March 29 |
Research |
|
|
13. |
April 3 |
Defense and
natural enemy foraging. |
Chapter 7 |
|
13. |
April 5 |
Research |
|
|
F. COMPARISONS OF CHEMICALLY MEDIATED
INTERACTIONS |
|||
|
14. |
April 10 |
Terrestrial
and aquatic systems. |
Fenical, 1982 |
|
14. |
April 12 |
Research |
|
|
15. |
April 17 |
Research
Symposium |
|
|
15. |
April 19 |
Research
Symposium |
|
|
16. |
April 24 |
FINAL EXAM
2:45-4:45 pm |
1106 Wood
hall |
Text:
Harborne, J.B. 1993. Introduction to Ecological Biochemistry. Fourth
Edition. Academic Press, London & San Diego, 318 pp.
Optional text: Eisner, T., and Meinwald, J..
(Eds.) 1995. Chemical Ecology: The chemistry of biotic interaction. National
Academy Press, Washington, 214 pp.
Web
Resources for Chemical Ecology
Aquatic Chemical Ecology
Group at the Georgia Institute of Technology:
http://www.biology.gatech.edu/professors/hay.html
http://www.biology.gatech.edu/igert.php
Biological Chemistry &
Chemical Ecology Group at IACR, Rothamsted, UK (John Pickett, Lester Wadhams):
http://www.rothamsted.bbsrc.ac.uk/bch/
http://www.rothamsted.bbsrc.ac.uk/bch/CEGroup/ChemEcolGroup.html
Chemoecology: (BirkhŠuser/Springer Publishers)
(note: Michael BopprŽ (University
of Freiburg) and Steve Malcolm started this journal in 1989 as its first
editors – we stepped down in 1997 and now Jacques Pasteels & DesirŽ
Daloze of the UniversitŽ Libre in Brussels are the editors).
Cornell University:
Cornell Institute for Research in
Chemical Ecology (CIRCE)
http://www.nbb.cornell.edu/neurobio/CIRCE/CIRCE.html
Professor Thomas Eisner, Dept.
Neurobiology & Behavior (Jacob Gould Schurman Professor of Chemical Ecology
and Director, Cornell Institute for Research in Chemical Ecology (CIRCE)
http://www.nbb.cornell.edu/neurobio/eisner/eisner.html
Boyce Thompson Institute for
Plant Research http://bti.cornell.edu/
http://www.ice.mpg.de/main/home/home_en.htm
Ian Baldwin, Max Planck Institute of Chemical Ecology:
http://www.ice.mpg.de/itb/home/home_en.htm
Ring T. CardŽ, Entomology, University of California
– Riverside - insect behavior:
http://www.entomology.ucr.edu/people/carde.html
J. Daniel Hare, Entomology, University of California
– Riverside - plant-herbivore:
http://www.entomology.ucr.edu/people/hare.html
http://faculty.ucr.edu/~harejd/
Jocelyn Millar, Entomology, University of California
– Riverside - insect pheromones:
http://www.entomology.ucr.edu/people/millar.html
John Hildebrand, Entomology, University of Arizona -
neurobiology:
http://neurobio.arizona.edu/faculty/hildebrand/index.php
Marcel Dicke, Entomology, Wageningen University-
tritrophic interactions:
http://www.dpw.wau.nl/ento/english/Personel/Dicke%20Engels/dicke.htm
Louise Vet, The Netherlands Institute of Ecology -
tritrophic interactions:
http://www.nioo.knaw.nl/ppages/lvet/
Some
key references to Chemical Ecology.
(Organized according to the
schedule and in chronological order - the "¥" indicates that SM has
the reference, otherwise the references are in the WMU library, except for
those marked"*")
A. INTRODUCTION
1) Introduction to CHEMICAL ECOLOGY:
Historical background:
¥Dethier, V.G. 1954. Evolution of feeding
preferences in phytophagous insects. Evolution 8: 33-54.
¥Fraenkel, G. 1959. The raison d'tre of secondary plant substances. Science 129: 1466-1470.
¥Ehrlich, P.R., and P.H. Raven. 1964.
Butterflies and plants: a study in coevolution. Evolution 18: 586-608.
¥Brower, L.P. 1969. Ecological chemistry. Scientific
American 220:
22-29.
¥Whittaker, R.H., and P.P. Feeny. 1970.
Allelochemics: Chemical interactions between species. Science 171: 757-770.
¥Rothschild, M. 1973. Secondary plant
substances and warning colouration in insects. Pp 59-83 in, H. van Emden (ed.) Insect-Plant
Interactions. Symposia of the Royal Entomological Society of London.6 Blackwell Scientific
Publications, Oxford.
Relevant volumes:
¥Sondheimer, E., and Simeone, J.B. (eds.)
1970. Chemical Ecology.
Academic Press, New York. 336 pp.
¥Wood, D.L., Silverstein, R.M., and
Nakajima, M. (eds.) 1970. Control of Insect Behavior by Natural Products. Academic Press, New York. 345
pp.
¥Harborne, J.B. (ed.) 1972. Phytochemical
Ecology.
Academic Press, London. 272 pp.
¥Gilbert, L.E., and Raven P.H. (eds.) 1975.
Coevolution of Animals and Plants. University of Texas Press, Austin. 246 pp.
¥Wallace, J.W., and Mansell, R.L. (eds.)
1976. Biochemical Interaction Between Plants and Insects. Recent Advances in
Phytochemistry
10: Plenum Press, 425 pp.
¥Harborne, J.B. (ed.) 1978. Biochemical
Aspects of Plant and Animal Coevolution. Academic Press, London, 435 pp.
¥Rosenthal, G.A., and Janzen, D.H. (eds.)
1979. Herbivores: Their Interaction with Secondary Plant Metabolites." Academic Press, New York, 718
pp. (Second edition in press as 2 volumes due in 1992).
¥Bell, W.J., and CardŽ, R.T. (eds.) 1984. The
Chemical Ecology of Insects. Sinauer, Sunderland, 524 pp.
¥Spencer, K.C. (ed.) 1988. Chemical
Mediation of Coevolution.
Academic Press, San Diego, 609 pp.
¥Rosenthal, G.A., and Berenbaum, M.R.
(eds.) 1991 & 1992. Herbivores. Their Interactions with Secondary Plant
Metabolites.
Vols I & II. Academic Press, San Diego.
¥Roitberg, B.D., and Isman, M.B. (eds.)
1992. Insect Chemical Ecology. An Evolutionary Approach. Chapman & Hall, New York,
359 pp.
¥Harborne, J.B. 1993. Introduction to
Ecological Biochemistry.
Fourth Edition. Academic Press, London & San Diego, 318 pp. (course text).
¥CardŽ, R.T., and W.J. Bell. (eds.) 1995. Chemical
Ecology of Insects 2.
Chapman & Hall, New York, 433 pp.
¥Eisner, T., and J. Meinwald (eds.) 1995. Chemical
Ecology: The chemistry of biotic interaction. National Academy Press, Washington, 214
pp.
¥Romeo, J.T., Saunders, J.A., and Barbosa,
P. (eds.) 1996. Phytochemical Diversity and Redundancy in Ecological
Interactions. Recent Advances in Phytochemistry 30: Plenum Press, 319 pp.
¥Karban, R., and Baldwin, I.T. 1997. Induced
Responses to herbivory.
The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 319 pp.
B. CHEMICAL ECOLOGY OF
PLANT-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS
2) The abiotic environment:
Fitter, A.H., and Hay, R.K.M. 1987. Environmental
Physiology of Plants.
2nd edition. Academic Press, London.
Levitt, J. 1980. Responses of Plants to
Environmental Stresses.
2nd edition, 2 vols. Academic Press, London.
Luckner, M. 1990. Secondary Metabolism
in Microorganisms, Plants and Animals. 3rd edition. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
C. COMMUNICATION
3) Plant-animal (Mutualistic or antagonistic):
Bonner, J.T. 1984. The evolution of
chemical signal-receptor systems (from slime moulds to man). Pp. 1-15, in Oxford Surveys in
Evolutionary Biology, Vol. 1, R. Dawkins & M. Ridley (eds.). Oxford University Press,
Oxford.
Pollination (mutualistic?):-
¥Gilbert, L.E., and Raven P.H. (eds.).
1975. Coevolution of Animals and Plants. University of Texas Press, Austin. 246 pp.
(several papers)
¥Lewis, A.C., and Lipani, G.A. 1990.
Learning and flower use in butterflies: Hypotheses from honey bees. Pp. 95-110,
in E.A. Bernays (ed.) Insect-Plant Interactions. Vol.II. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
"Green leaf volatiles" (antagonistic signals of
herbivory/indirect mutualism):-
¥Lewis, W.J., and Tumlinson, J.H. 1988.
Host detection by chemically mediated associative learning in a parasitic wasp.
Nature 331:
257-259.
Dickens, J.C., Jang, E.B., Light, D.M., and
Alford, A.R. 1990. Enhancement of insect pheromone responses by green leaf
volatiles. Naturwissenschaften 77: 29-31.
¥Whitman, D.W., and Eller, F.J. 1990.
Parasitic wasps orient to green leaf volatiles. Chemoecology 1: 69-75.
4) Animal-animal (Mating; social structure):
*Ritter, F.J. (ed.) 1979. Chemical
Ecology: Odour Communication in Animals. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp.
¥Bell, W.J., and CardŽ, R.T. (eds.) 1984. The
Chemical Ecology of Insects. Sinauer, Sunderland, 524 pp (several papers)
¥BopprŽ, M. 1986. Insects pharmacophagously
utilizing defensive plant chemicals (pyrrolizidine alkaloids). Naturwissenschaften 73: 17-26 (also see, ¥BopprŽ,
M. 1990. J. Chem. Ecol.
16: 165-).
¥Gosling, L.M., and McKay, H.V. 1990.
Scent-rubbing and status signalling by male mammals. Chemoecology 1: 92-95.
D. COMPETITION
5) Animal competition (Competition for mates, space,
food, resources etc.):
¥Bell, W.J., and CardŽ, R.T. (eds.) 1984. The
Chemical Ecology of Insects. Sinauer, Sunderland, 524 pp (several papers - competition is
included under pheromonal communication in the "chemical-mediated
spacing" section, eg. Prokopy et al.)
For marine systems see:
Scheuer, P.J. (ed.) 1978. Marine Natural
Products: Chemical and Biological Perspectives. Academic Press, New York.
Fenical, W. 1982. Natural products
chemistry in the marine environment. Science 215: 923-928.
Valiela, I. 1984. Marine Ecological
Processes.
Springer-Verlag, New York, 546 pp.
Note: we could include chemical defenses as
a kind of indirect animal competition mediated via natural enemies - see the
following references:
¥Huheey, J.E. 1984. Warning coloration and
mimicry. Pp. 257-297, in Bell,
W.J., and CardŽ, R.T. (eds.) 1984. The Chemical Ecology of Insects. Sinauer, Sunderland.
¥Kerfoot, W.C., and Sih, A. (eds.) 1987. Predation:
Direct and Indirect Impacts on Aquatic Communities. University Press of New England, Hanover.
386 pp. (section II)
6) Plant competition (Review allelopathy):
Putnam, A.R., and Tang, C-S. (eds). 1986. The
Science of Allelopathy.
John Wiley & Sons, New York, 317 pp.
Karban, R., Adamchak, R., and Schnathorst,
W.C. 1987. Induced resistance and interspecific competition between spider
mites and a vascular wilt fungus. Science 235: 678-680 (an intriguing example of
competition).
Inderjit, Dakshini, K.M.M., and Foy, C.L.
(editors) 1999. Principles and practices in Plant Ecology. Allelochemical
interactions. CRC Press, Boca Raton, 589 pp. (QK898.A43 P75 1999).
E. TROPHIC INTERACTIONS
7) Plant-pathogen (Include fungal,
bacterial and viral pathogens of plants; also plant parasites like mistletoes etc.):
¥Edwards, W.G.H. 1972. Orobanche and other plant parasite
factors. Pp. 235-248, in, Harborne, J.B. (ed.), Phytochemical Ecology. Academic Press.
¥Levin, D.A. 1976. The chemical defenses of
plants to pathogens and herbivores. Annual Review of Ecology &
Systematics 7:
121-159.
Bailey, J.A., and Deverall, B.J. (eds.)
1983. The Dynamics of Host Defence. Academic Press.
Callow, J.A. (ed.). 1983. Biochemical
Plant Pathology.
Wiley, Chichester.
8) Plant-insect:
¥Levin, D.A. 1976. The chemical defenses of
plants to pathogens and herbivores. Annual Review of Ecology &
Systematics 7:
121-159.
¥Feeny, P.P. 1976. Plant apparency and
chemical defense. Recent Advances in Phytochemistry 10: 1-40.
¥Rhoades, D.F., and Cates, R.G. 1976. A
general theory of plant herbivore chemistry. Recent Advances in
Phytochemistry
10: 168-213.
¥Duffey, S.S. 1980. Sequestration of plant
natural products by insects. Annual Review of Entomology 25: 447-477.
Wood, D.L. 1982. The role of pheromones,
kairomones and allomones in the host selection and colonization behaviour of
bark beetles. Annual Review of Entomology 27: 411-446.
¥Berenbaum, M. 1983. Coumarins and
caterpillars: a case for coevolution. Evolution 37: 163-179.
¥Coley, P.D., Bryant, J.P., and Chapin,
F.S.III 1985. Resource availability and plant antiherbivore defense. Science 230: 895-899.
¥Mattson, W.J., Levieux, J., and
Bernard-Dagan, C. (eds.). 1988. Mechanisms of Woody Plant Defenses Against
Insects: Search for Pattern. Springer-Verlag, New York. 416 pp.
Staal, G.B. 1986. Antijuvenile hormone
agents. Annual Review of Entomology 31: 391-429.
¥Brattsten, L.B., and Ahmad, S. (eds.).
1986. Molecular Aspects of Insect-Plant Associations. Plenum Press, New York. 346 pp.
¥Berenbaum, M.R. 1990. Plant consumers and
plant secondary chemistry: past, present and future. Pp. 285-307, in Oxford
Surveys in Evolutionary Biology, Vol. 7, D. Futuyma & J. Antonovics (eds.).
Oxford University Press, Oxford.
The role of symbiotes:-
¥Campbell, B.C. 1989. On the role of
microbial symbiotes in herbivorous insects. Pp. 1-44, in E.A. Bernays (ed.) Insect-Plant
Interactions.
Vol.1. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
9) Plant-vertebrate:
¥Arnold, G.W., and Hill, J.L. 1972.
Chemical factors affecting selection of food plants by ruminants. Pp. 72-101,
in Harborne, J.B. (ed.) Phytochemical Ecology. Academic Press, London.
¥Bryant, J.P., and Kuropat, P.J. 1980.
Selection of winter forage by subarctic browsing vertebrates: The role of plant
chemistry. Annual Review of Ecology & Systematics 11: 261-285.
¥Lindroth, R.L. 1988. Adaptations of
mammalian herbivores to plant chemical defenses. Pp 415-445, in K.C. Spencer
(ed.), Chemical Mediation of Coevolution. Academic Press, San Diego. (includes role
of symbiotes in vertebrates).
10) Animal-animal:
¥Brower, L.P. 1969. Ecological chemistry. Scientific
American 220:
22-29.
¥Rothschild, M. 1973. Secondary plant
substances and warning colouration in insects. Pp 59-83 in, H. van Emden (ed.) Insect-Plant
Interactions. Symposium of the Royal Entomological Society of London. Blackwell Scientific
Publications, Oxford.
¥Pasteels, J.M., GrŽgoire, J-C., and
Rowell-Rahier, M. 1983. The chemical ecology of defence in arthropods. Annual
Review of Entomology
28: 263-289.
¥Evans, D.L., and Schmidt, J.O. (eds.)
1990. Insect Defenses: Adaptive mechanisms and strategies of prey and
predators.
State University of New York Press, Albany N.Y.
11). Tritrophic interactions:
¥Price, P.W., Bouton, C.E., Gross, P.,
McPheron, B.A., Thompson, J.A., and Weis, A.E. 1980. Interactions among three
trophic levels: Influence of plants on the interactions between insect
herbivores and natural enemies. Annual Review of Ecology & Systematics 11: 41-65.
¥Malcolm, S.B., and Brower, L.P. 1989.
Evolutionary and ecological implications of cardenolide sequestration in the
monarch butterfly. Experientia 45: 284-295.
¥Malcolm, S.B. 1990. Chemical defence in
chewing and sucking insect herbivores: plant-derived cardenolides in the
monarch butterfly and oleander aphid. Chemoecology 1: 12-21.
¥Rowell-Rahier, M., and Pasteels, J.M.
1990. Phenolglucosides and interactions at three trophic levels:
Salicaceae-Herbivores-Predators. Pp 75-110, in E.A. Bernays (ed.) Insect-Plant
Interactions.
Vol. II. CRC Press, Boca Raton.
¥Malcolm, S.B. 1992. Cardenolide-mediated
interactions between plants and herbivores. Pp. 251-296 in G. Rosenthal and M. Berenbaum (eds.) Herbivores:
Their Interactions with Secondary Plant Metabolites. 2nd edition, Vol. 1: The
Chemical Participants.
Academic Press.
F. COMPARISONS OF
CHEMICALLY MEDIATED INTERACTIONS
13). Defence and natural enemy foraging
(Compare defence and foraging in plants, invertebrates and vertebates):
¥Feder, M.E., and Lauder, G.V. (eds.).
1986. Predator-Prey Relationships. Perspectives and Approaches from the
Study of Lower Vertebrates.
The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
¥Malcolm, S.B. 1990. Mimicry: status of a
classical evolutionary paradigm. Trends
in Ecology and Evolution 5(2):
57-62.
¥Malcolm, S.B. 1992. Prey defence and
predator foraging. Pages 458-475 In, M.J. Crawley (editor), Natural Enemies:
The population biology of predators, parasites and diseases. Blackwell Scientific
Publications, Oxford.
14). Terrestrial and aquatic systems:
¥Whittaker, R.H., and P.P. Feeny. 1970.
Allelochemics: Chemical interactions between species. Science 171: 757-770.
¥Fenical, W. 1982. Natural products
chemistry in the marine environment. Science 215: 923-928.
¥Kerfoot, W.C., and Sih, A. (eds.) 1987. Predation:
Direct and Indirect Impacts on Aquatic Communities. University Press of New England, Hanover.
386 pp. (especially section IVA).
IS INTERDISCIPLINARY
UNDERSTANDING BETWEEN ECOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY PRODUCTIVE?
Relevant journals include: ¥Journal of
Chemical Ecology,
¥Chemoecology, *Biochemical Ecology & Systematics, Recent Advances in
Phytochemistry, and
Experientia. Otherwise, relevant papers appear in
most of the primary biological and ecological journals as well as review
journals and Science
and Nature.
Suggested discussion topics:
1) Is interdisciplinary understanding
between ecology and biochemistry productive?
2) Can we suggest a better framework for
classifying chemically mediated interactions than that of Whittaker and Feeny
(1970)?
3) Should the very large literature on toxicology
be included within Chemical Ecology?
4) How useful is chemical ecology towards
solving applied problems?
5) Are environmental, medical, veterinary,
chemical and ecological researchers compatible?
6) Chemical prospecting: Can ecology help
in the search for biologically active chemicals?
7) Are diseases just as relevant to
chemical ecology as herbivores, predators and parasites?